Durrington Walls The discoveries at
Durrington Walls, an ancient settlement two miles from Stonehenge, tell a story
of feasting and ceremony, each one a clue to explain what our ancestors ate,
how they cooked, where their food came from and how it reflects their spiritual
and cultural values.
Better evidence for the domestication of cattle, pigs and
sheep has emerged from excavations at Durrington Walls where over 38,000
discarded animal bones - probably representing at least 1,000 animals - were
recovered. Analysis of these bones has
revealed a great deal about where food came from, and how people in the
Neolithic period prepared their meals.
Of the bones and teeth excavated at Durrington Walls, 90% were from pigs, and the rest mostly from cattle. Many still had meat attached to them when they were discarded. In its self this may not seem significant, but it does suggest that there was more than enough food to feed everyone. Cut-marks, made by flint tools, on some of the cattle bones show the meat was clearly butchered, and burnt foot bones suggest that pigs were often roasted over open fires.
Roast Meat For our part, we kept things simple by spit-roasting small joints of pork and beef. This proved challenging outdoors in autumn and winter; cooking took far longer than expected. Our experience was undoubtedly skewed by not being able to cook inside a roundhouse (for reasons of safety). Given the time of the year, however, spit-roasting over a central hearth indoors probably would have been the norm. Even so, taking all day to slowly spit-roast, or perhaps pit roast, a joint of meat makes some sense.
Of the bones and teeth excavated at Durrington Walls, 90% were from pigs, and the rest mostly from cattle. Many still had meat attached to them when they were discarded. In its self this may not seem significant, but it does suggest that there was more than enough food to feed everyone. Cut-marks, made by flint tools, on some of the cattle bones show the meat was clearly butchered, and burnt foot bones suggest that pigs were often roasted over open fires.
Roast Meat For our part, we kept things simple by spit-roasting small joints of pork and beef. This proved challenging outdoors in autumn and winter; cooking took far longer than expected. Our experience was undoubtedly skewed by not being able to cook inside a roundhouse (for reasons of safety). Given the time of the year, however, spit-roasting over a central hearth indoors probably would have been the norm. Even so, taking all day to slowly spit-roast, or perhaps pit roast, a joint of meat makes some sense.
As dawn breaks, the embers of the fire are coaxed back to
life. After a simple breakfast, the men,
women and children will set about their daily chores. Those tending the hearth might be responsible
for slow roasting the meat that will become the day’s main meal. With people busy - hunting, gathering, caring
for livestock, working in the fields, making or repairing things - frequent
snacking, or grazing, may well have been the order of the day. The idea of stopping for a defined midday
meal appears a relatively recent creation.
By late afternoon or early evening, perhaps people returned home,
gathering to enjoy the fruits of their labours and that slowly roasted meat.
Feasting While we can to a certain extent generalise from the evidence at Durrington
Walls, this was not regular, everyday consumption. Instead, the evidence implies people were
gathering and feasting at Durrington Walls, but why? Many of the pigs had been killed at about
nine months old which, since the piglets were most probably born in the spring,
means they were being slaughtered in midwinter. This suggests that people were gathering for
feasts at that time of year to celebrate the seasonally important winter solstice. But where did they all come from?
From stable isotope analysis, the relative amounts of
different types of strontium, oxygen and sulphur in the animal bones and
teeth can be measured. In any
creature’s formative years, including us, these elements are affected by
geology, nearness to the coast, and climate.
This allows scientists to work out roughly where humans and animals were
born and raised.
Analysis of the pig teeth from Durrington Walls suggests
that some of the pigs were reared in west Wales, some in upland northern
England and some even as far away as north-east Scotland. The cattle teeth also suggest that these
animals were not raised on the local chalk geology of rural Wiltshire. All of which strongly suggests that the
animals were most likely herded to the Stonehenge area.
Herding animals, even over relatively large distances, would
have been much easier than slaughtering them first and transporting the
carcasses. Simple logic, yet it implies
that people across Britain must have known about Stonehenge, where it was, and travelled there
from afar, whether to help build the monument or to take part in ceremonies and
feasts. Moreover, it suggests there may have
been far greater interconnectedness between Neolithic communities across the UK than one
might have imagined.
Hunters, Gatherers and Farmers By the late Neolithic period (3,000 to 2,300 BC), people in
Britain had been farming for over 1,000 years, so they were expert at raising
domestic animals for meat and milk, which seem to have been the most important
elements of their diet and economy. They
also cultivated and processed cereals, although not on a large scale, and
continued to gather wild foods such as mushrooms, berries and plants, and to
hunt wild animals.
Apart from rare finds of preserved foods, our knowledge of
what people 4,500 years ago were eating has been helped immensely by recent
scientific developments. When a pot is
used for cooking, some of the food molecules seep into the porous ceramic
material. Scientists have recently developed new ways of chemically analysing
pottery fragments to extract these trace residues and identify them. At Durrington Walls, the pots were mostly
found to contain pork and beef fats suggesting stews were popular.
Drink your Milk About a quarter of the Durrington Walls Grooved Ware pots
that were tested, however, were found to contain traces of dairy products such
as milk, butter, yoghurt or cheese. These
products we duly recreated, with the soft cheese, together with a simple flat
bread, proving to be particularly popular with Stonehenge’s visitors. But wait.
We know that people in Britain at the time were lactose
intolerant and did not having the ability to digest raw milk. So why were pots found that had been
obviously used to process milk into products like cheese and yoghurt?
Science Bit Infant mammals nurse on their mothers to drink milk, which
is rich in lactose. In humans a gene
known as LCT provides instructions for making the enzyme lactase
(β-D-galactosidase), which is secreted in our intestines to digest lactose. A specific DNA sequence in another gene (the MCM6
gene if you’re interested) helps control whether the LCT gene is turned
on or off. With the LCT gene “on”, the enzyme cleaves the lactose molecule into
its two subunits, the simple sugars glucose and galactose, which can be
absorbed by an infant to fuel growth.
Since lactose occurs mostly in milk, in most mammals, the production of
lactase gradually decreases with maturity due to a lack of continued consumption after weaning.
This means that, having gained the developmental benefits of
their mother’s milk, most mammals normally cease to produce lactase. At least several thousand years ago, however, some
humans developed a mutation in the MCM6 gene which keeps the LCT
gene turned on even after breast feeding is stopped. Such people are known as “lactase persistent”
and can thus tolerate lactose in milk. People
who are lactose intolerant, or “lactase non-persistent”, do not have this
mutation, and lacking lactase, consuming milk or other dairy products
may cause adverse effects.
Confused? To makes
matters worse, genetically lactase non-persistent individuals can tolerate
varying quantities of lactose before showing symptoms, and their symptoms
differ in severity. Most can digest a
small quantity of milk, for example in tea or coffee, without suffering any reaction.
The simple answer to the Neolithic conundrum - lactose
intolerance versus evidence for dairying - is that the processing of milk into
products like butter, yoghurt and cheese significantly reduces the level of
lactose.
For example:
·
The
process of making butter largely removes lactose, albeit small quantities
remain present; clarified butter contains a negligible amount of lactose.
·
Lactobacilli
used in the production of yogurt remove lactose to varying degrees, depending
on the type of yogurt. Bacteria found in
yogurt produce their own enzyme, lactase, which facilitates digestion in the
intestines of lactose intolerant individuals.
·
Fermentation
reduces the lactose content of cheeses, and aging reduces it further;
traditionally made hard cheeses might contain 10% of the lactose found in an
equivalent volume of milk.
So, the evidence from Durrington Walls offers important proof that humans in Britain were developing that familiar tolerance to lactose. As a consequence, we spent much of our time making butter and a simple soft cheese from cow’s milk, which was flavoured with mint. Although lots of other plants can provide tasty flavours, it seems that mint is one of only two herbs
native to Neolithic Britain, the other being thyme. The latter we used in a flat bread recipe to
compliment the cheese and allow Stonehenge’s visitors to sample (if they
wanted) Neolithic-style “bread and cheese”.
Supporting the Feast Exhibition proved to be an education for us as much as we hoped it was for visitors to Stonehenge. The history of food provides an amazing continuity for the human story. Our delight in discovering new foods or realising that we share so much in common crosses cultural barriers like nothing else. Food and feasting, as embodied in the story of Stonehenge and Durrington Walls, simply brings people together.
Additional information:
Our storage and cooking pots were all hand-crafted by Graham Taylor of Potted History.
Flint tools were knapped by James Dilley of AncientCraft.
Our sincerest thanks go to all the staff at the Stonehenge Visitors Centre for making us feel so welcome.
Additional information:
Our storage and cooking pots were all hand-crafted by Graham Taylor of Potted History.
Flint tools were knapped by James Dilley of AncientCraft.
Our sincerest thanks go to all the staff at the Stonehenge Visitors Centre for making us feel so welcome.
No comments:
Post a Comment