Kitchenalia: Fish Eaters

In the 1880s, while the ‘Old Money’, the aristocracy, ate their fish course using two table forks, the ‘New Money’, the nouveau riche, adopted distinctive knives and forks for the same purpose. These cutlery forms became increasingly popular, yet their distinctive shape serves no real purpose other than to distinguish ‘fish eaters’, or ‘fish-eating knives and forks’ as they were also called, from other pieces of table cutlery. Today, such cutlery has mostly fallen out of favour, which explains why so much of it can be found for sale in antiques and collectibles shops, online, and so on.

Victorian dining etiquette

The complicated dining etiquette of the Victorian era encouraged the development of utensils for eating particular foods. The proper use of cutlery formed an important and often lengthy section in the etiquette manuals published at the time to guide the unwary. As the century progressed, the rules for the use of some cutlery changed, reflecting the refinements that began to differentiate the manners and status of 'old' and 'new' money. The development of fish eaters is a good example of this. Until the 1880s etiquette manuals recommended that fish be eaten using two ordinary table forks or one fork and a piece of bread. But in the last quarter of the 19th century, middle-class families bought the newly developed utensils, such as fish eaters, to differentiate themselves from those who already owned more traditional cutlery sets. In 1838 a book of etiquette for ladies [1] recorded that, 'in first rate society, silver knives are now beginning to be used for fish: a very pleasing, as well as decided step in the progress of refinement.' People no longer used steel knives and forks, as the steel was said to react with acids in the fish sauces and taint the flavour of the food. By this time, fish knives and forks were commonly called 'fish eaters' or 'fish-eating knives and forks' (V&A Collections, online). Even so, in some circles the innovative cutlery designs were never accepted and have remained a subject for prejudice and exclusion to this day.

History of fish-eaters

For manufacturers of cutlery (cutlers), this was a highly successful time. Early to mid-19th century Britain was a period of thriving industry and wealth. This enabled the middle classes the money and time to use dining as a way to impress and display their wealth. Coupled with the idea of separate courses arriving in the 1850s, led to the demand for an assortment of utensils that would distinguish the serving and eating of various food types. At the peak of the antique silver fish service’s use, there were more than 200 distinct eating utensils used at the dining table. Cutlers were producing hundreds of design styles incorporating additional materials to the handles to make them more aesthetically appealing. In the case of fish servers, knife blades were frequently embellished with piscatorial-related engraved decoration (Tubbrit, 2016).

In the Victorian era, fish servers and cutlery sets made fabulous gifts. It was common for brides to request fish services as gifts to add to their silver flatware collection as a dining table could be set with twenty-two or more different pieces at each place setting. Undoubtedly the social and cultural changes brought about post two world wars led to a shift in dining habits. While it seems the practice of gifting fish services continued well into the 20th century, the sheer number of sets frequently encountered for sale reflects a trend away from such cutlery and their current lack of popularity.

What is a fish-eating knife and fork?

This small table knife is specifically designed to facilitate the eating of fish. The knife blade has a curved sharp edge, perfect for sliding between the skin and flesh of the fish. The broad blade is a useful feature as it assists in lifting the fish to the fork, whilst keeping flakes in one piece. The blade terminates in a relatively sharp point which is useful to lift small bones away from the flesh. The wide surface may also be used to scrape up, or spread any sauce served with the fish (Tubbrit, 2016).

As with the fish knife, the fish fork is used with fish dishes. The standard fish fork is smaller than a table fork at approximately 18½ cm to ca. 20 cm (7 ¼ to 7 ¾ inches) long. Fish forks (and knives) often have an incurve shaped form (pictured); this feature was likely simply to differentiate it from all the other forks that could be present on the table, as there were frequently many (Tubbrit, 2016).

Placement on the Dining Table

As with any other cutlery in a traditional dinner setting, the fish-eating knives and forks are placed in order of use. If fish is being served as an appetiser, the fish knife is laid to the right of the dinner knife and fish fork to the left of the dinner fork. In other words, they would be the first items of cutlery to be used working from the outside inwards (Tubbrit, 2016).

If fish is being served as a main course, fish cutlery should be placed nearest to the plate (fish knife to the right of the dinner plate and fish fork laid to the left of the plate). When it comes to the fish fork, it may be placed with either the fork tines upward in the American style, or downward for the continental style, as pictured below (Tubbrit, 2016).

References:

Tubbrit, G., (2016), ‘History of Fish Knives and Forks’, Available on-line: https://www.acsilver.co.uk/acsnews/2016/03/24/fish-knives-fish-forks-etiquette/ (accessed March 4th, 2022)

V&A Collections, ‘Fish Knife’, Available online: https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O48546/fish-knife-goldsmiths-and-silversmiths/ (accessed March 4th, 2022).

Endnotes:

1. A.F., (1838), ‘The Ladies’ Pocket Book of Etiquette’, Golden Cockerel Press (1928).

Kitchenalia: Roman Soldier's Cookware

In an earlier article, we challenged the idea that Roman soldiers cooked farinata, a type of unleavened bread made from chickpea flour, on their shields (link here). Given that Roman shields (Latin scutae; sing. scuta) were typically made of wood this is highly unlikely and at best a myth. So, if not using their shields, then what utensils might the average Roman soldier carry to cook with?

Roman army mess tin

Trajan's column in Rome depicts soldiers carrying objects similar to the one pictured (right). They are thought to be ‘mess tins’ (a much more modern military term) or saucepans used both for cooking and for eating from. Today they are frequently referred to as patera [1], but this is possible a misnomer.

In his account of The Jewish War, Flavius Josephus [2] records that, in addition to three days rations, each Roman soldier carried ‘a saw, a basket, a pick and an axe, as well as a strap, a bill-hook and a chain’ (Goldsworthy, 2003, 135). The ‘bill-hook’ may well have been a sickle for reaping crops. Regardless, Josephus’ statement is supported by a scene on Trajan's Column, pictured right, that depicts legionaries carrying their kit over their shoulders on a pole (Latin: furca). This consisted in part of a string-bag for forage, a metal cooking-pot (situla) and a ‘mess-tin’.

Examples of the latter have been discovered in most parts of the Empire (Davies, 2011). Now housed in museums, most paterae are made of cast bronze, often tin-lined, and sometimes with their handles and/or bowls highly decorated. The maker frequently stamped their name on it, as did the object's owner. The analogy with modern military mess tins seems obvious, but these pans were used in far wider contexts, such as in kitchens and in religious observances for making libations.

Libation  In the material culture of classical antiquity, to the ancient Greeks a phiale is a shallow ceramic or metal libation bowl. In Latin the same object is named patera (pl. paterae) The most numerous were small plates of the common red earthenware onto which an ornamental pattern was drawn. Numerous specimens may be seen in the British Museum, and in other collections of ancient ceramic vases. The more valuable paterae were metallic, being chiefly of bronze, although wealthier families may have had one of silver. Libation bowls often have a bulbous indentation (omphalos, ‘bellybutton’) centrally underneath to facilitate holding them, and typically have no handles or feet. Although the two terms may be used interchangeably, particularly in the context of Etruscan culture, phiale is more common in reference to Greek forms, and patera in Roman settings (which should not be confused with the Greek (Πατέρας) patéras meaning ‘father’ and the Latin equivalent pater). In Roman art, the libation is shown performed at an altar, mensa (sacrificial meal table), or at a tripod. It was the simplest form of sacrifice, and could be a sufficient offering by itself.

Cooking pot

Also mentioned in Josephus’ description is a situla (pl. situlae). From the Latin word for bucket or pail, the term is used in both archaeology and art history to describe a variety of elaborate bucket-shaped vessels dating from the Iron Age to the Middle Ages. Usually fitted with a handle, all types of situlae may be highly decorated, most characteristically with reliefs in bands or friezes running round the vessel. A more utilitarian, undecorated, tin-lined version (pictured right) was more likely carried by Roman soldiers as a cooking pot.

 

Folding Frying Pan

While Josephus specifically mentions soldiers carrying paterae and situlae, archaeological evidence also suggest they used other items of cookware. Pictured right is our splendid replica of a late Roman frying pan or skillet made by Len Morgan. Earlier dated pans tend to have a fixed handle much like the patera already discussed, which gave rise to them being named as such. The original iron version with a folding handle, upon which the replicas is based, was found near the fort Gelduba (Krefeld-Gellep, Germany) and dates from the 3rd-century AD. A similarly dated folding handle pan, made for a soldier of the Roman army in Wales, is housed in the National Roman Legion Museum, Caerleon. The folding handle makes perfect sense in a military context as it minimises the space needed to carry it.

The replica’s handle is attached by a single barrel hinge and pin to an integral tang, as shown in the bottom image (above right). The pan has a spout to drain off fat, just like the originals. It is made of 1 mm thick steel and measures approximately 235 mm wide, 630 mm long with the handle extended or 360 mm folded. The pan’s depth is approximately 25 mm and it weighs 1.25 kg.

 
References:

Davies, R. W., (2011), ‘The Roman Military Diet’, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Goldsworthy, A., (2003), ‘The Complete Roman Army, London: Thames and Hudson.

Endnotes:

1. To confuse matters, pa′tera was also the name given to round dishes, small plates or saucers which, according to Pliny (Natural History, XXX.8 s21), were sometimes used in cooking, an operation more commonly performed in pots [olla] and basins or bowls. They could also be used at meals to eat upon or to serve food. The use of paterae at meals no doubt gave origin to the employment of them in sacrifices. On these occasions they held either solid food or any liquid intended to be poured out as a libation. We find paterae frequently represented in conjunction with the other instruments of sacrifice upon coins, gems, altars, bas-reliefs, and the friezes of temples.

2. Flavius Josephus (c. AD 37 – c. AD 100) was a first-century Romano-Jewish historian. He initially fought against the Romans in the First Jewish-Roman War (AD 66-70) but surrendered to the forces led by the future emperor Vespasian in AD 67. Subsequently, having defected to the Roman side, Josephus set about recording Jewish history with special emphasis on The Jewish War which, written c. AD 75, recounts the Jewish revolt against Roman occupation and includes his account of the siege of Masada.