About History: Amazing ancient inventions

What follows was inspired by a short piece in BBC History Magazine that drew Tastes Of History’s attention to discovering some of the amazing inventions that seemed far ahead of their time. Some were so advanced in their conception that scholars today doubt whether they could have been realised given the technology of the time. Even so, each of these ancient inventions shows a marvel of human ingenuity and have since inspired modern recreations testing their plausibility. This first outing looks at some of the notable ancient Greek inventions.

Steam-power

In the 4th-century BC, a Greek inventor reportedly built a wooden, steam-propelled flying pigeon. Working in Tarentum (modern Taranto), the mathematician and Pythagorean philosopher Archytas of Tarentum [1] created a bird-shaped machine reputedly able to travel up to 200 metres through the air to the astonishment of his fellow citizens. However, the sole mention of this feat occurs some five centuries after Archytas, when Roman author and grammarian Aulus Gellius reports:

“Archytas made a wooden model of a dove with such mechanical ingenuity and art that it flew; so nicely balanced was it, you see, with weights and moved by a current of air enclosed and hidden within it. About so improbable a story I prefer to give Favorinus’ own words: ‘Archytas the Tarentine, being in other lines also a mechanician, made a flying dove out of wood. Whenever it lit, it did not rise again.’”

Clearly Gellius views the report with much the same scepticism as his mentor Favorinus, but that has not stopped later historians and engineers attempting to recreate Archytus’ mechanical marvel. From the available sources, it is thought the lightweight body of the Flying Pigeon was cylindrical in shape and hollow, with wings projecting to either side and smaller wings, like a tail, to the rear. The front of the Pigeon was pointed like a bird’s beak which, combined with its cylindrical body, produced an aerodynamic form to maximise flying distance and speed. The rear of the Flying Pigeon had an opening leading to an internal bladder. The opening was connected to a water-filled, airtight boiler which when heated generated steam that fed into the bird’s bladder. As the pressure of the steam exceeded the mechanical resistance of the connection, the Flying Pigeon was launched. The opening, now acting as an exhaust, allowed the pressurised steam within the bladder to vented out propelling the Pigeon in flight. Reputedly, the wings of the pigeon would flap, assisting its forward motion and keeping it aloft. In this manner the Flying Pigeon was said to have been capable of steam-powered flight for a considerable distance, between 100 to 200 metres.

Archytas would have faced many challenges when designing the first mechanical bird, not least of which was understanding how birds fly. Combine that with engineering knowledge in its infancy, lightweight metal alloys, plastics, and strong adhesives yet to be invented, and the ancient bird’s durability and flight capability could never compare to modern reproductions. Even so, the Kotsanas Museum of Ancient Greek Technology used the materials technology available to Archytas to create a reconstruction (below) of what the flying pigeon may have looked like.

If the accounts of this invention by Aulus Gellius are correct, then this would have been the world’s first self-propelled flying device. While a remarkable achievement, throughout human history there have been many accounts of amazing inventions attributed to some of the greatest thinkers. The question remains “just how many were actually made or were indeed functional?” It would be a lengthy project to try and cover all the possible examples from all recorded history across the globe. Many of these inventions deserve their own detailed examination, but for now we shall focus on just a few.

From the outset it is worth noting that for an invention to materialise takes three linked requirements: firstly, someone must have the initial idea, then there must be the materials technology available to realise the idea, and finally there must be a need for the invention to be successful. Take human flight as an example of the materials technology challenge. It is highly likely that humans, observing birds in flight, dreamed of copying them. As we have seen with Archytas’ Flying Pigeon, the idea was present but the problem for the longest time was the materials technology to deliver the design.

We need a Hero

Archytas’ attempts to harness steam-power roughly 500 years earlier clearly inspired one Hero (or Heron) of Alexandria ((Ήρων ο Αλεξανδρεύς, ca. AD 10 to AD 70). He was a Greco-Egyptian mathematician and inventor residing in Roman Egypt whose contributions to science and engineering, particularly his pioneering work on pneumatics and mechanics, influenced Islamic engineers during the Golden Age of Islam, as well as Renaissance thinkers who revived and expanded upon ancient Greek scientific knowledge. Hero is credited with inventing at least one automated vending machine and complex automata that used gears, pulleys, and hydraulics to animate figures during theatrical performances. He also harnessed air pressure to create a sophisticated wind-powered organ, created the pantograph, and contrived a steam-powered engine known today as the “aeolipile” or “Hero-Engine”. Recorded simply as invention “number 50”, it was an early steam-powered device that harnessed the principles of jet propulsion centuries ahead of its time.

Reconstructions of the aeolipile usually consist of a spherical or cylindrical vessel with oppositely bent or curved nozzles projecting outwards. Hero described the device as a simple boiler forming part of a stand for the rotating vessel. Water is heated in the boiler to vaporise it into steam that passes through tubes to pressurise the spherical vessel. The steam is expelled out of the opposing nozzles to generate thrust perpendicular to the axis of the vessel’s bearings causing it to spin. Aerodynamic drag and frictional forces in the bearings build quickly with increasing rotational speed (rpm) but this consumes the accelerating torque, eventually cancelling it to achieve a steady state speed.

Although considered to be the first recorded steam engine or reaction steam turbine, the aeolipile was neither a practical source of power nor a direct predecessor of the type of steam engine invented during the Industrial Revolution. Heron’s drawing shows a standalone device presumably intended as a “temple wonder” like many of the other inventions described in his work “Pneumatica”. So, despite conceiving the idea, realising it using contemporary materials technology, the aeolipile is a perfect example of the third factor in defining whether an invention will be successful. At the time of its creation, the Hero-engine simply did not solve a contemporary problem or fulfil a specific need.

“Doors to automatic”

It is not known whether Hero’s invention “number 37” was implemented but it was the first to describe temple doors that opened automatically when a alter fire is lit and closed again when the fire is extinguished. As shown in the superb animated graphic by artefacts-berlin.de, heat from a fire burning in an altar in front of the temple would build pressure in the vessel below ground. As the pressure increased, the liquid within the vessel, most likely water, would be forced through a connecting hose or pipe into a second vessel suspended from the ceiling. As the weight of the second vessel increased, ropes attached between it and the doorposts would “magically” pull the temple doors open. By extinguishing the fire, the cooling liquid would be sucked back into the first vessel making the second one lighter such that the counterweight would pull in the other direction to close the doors.

Another temple commission

Hero was also commissioned by an Egyptian temple to make the world’s first coin-operated vending machine to dispense holy water. When a worshiper inserted a coin through a slot in the device, it would fall onto a pan connected to a lever balanced on a guide. The coin’s weight caused the lever to tilt, raising the opposite end and opening a valve to allow a specific amount of holy water to flow from a cistern. The pan continued to move under the weight of the coin until, eventually, the coin slid off into a collection chamber. At that point the lever would return to its initial position closing the valve and stopping the water flow.

Water, water everywhere

Hero was not the only ancient inventor to conceive of water management devices. About 250 years earlier, in 234 BC, the Greek mathematician Archimedes first described a hydraulic device for lifting water during a visit to Egypt. Popularly called the “Archimedes’ screw”, this marvel of ancient engineering traces its roots to Hellenistic Egypt (332 BC to 30 BC) where the original design with spiral tubes wound around a rotating cylinder lifted water from the Nile River into irrigation ditches. Over time, the design was refined, such as incorporating a spiral groove into a solid wooden cylinder, which was then covered with boards or metal to enhance durability and efficiency. Today Archimedean screws are widely employed in irrigation and modern wastewater treatment. The device can also operate in reverse. When water enters from the top, the screw’s rotation can generate mechanical energy, making it suitable for hydroelectric power generation.

Although Archimedes did not claim to have invented the screw, it has become associated with his name from his detailed descriptions and applications of the device. Various other ancient Greek and Roman authors record the use of the Archimedes’ screw for various purposes including draining water, irrigating fields, and even removing bilge water from large ships. In his Bibliotheca Historica, Diodorus [2] describes its use for irrigation in the Nile Delta for nearby military camps and cities, and Vitruvius [3] details a wooden Archimedes’ screw with eight blades in his De Architectura, written between 27 BC and 22 BC. The earliest depiction of the water screw is a fresco at the villa Casa di P. Cornelius Teges in Pompeii dating earlier than AD 79.

The Archimedes’ screw is a simple yet ingenious design. It consists of a helical screw inside a hollow pipe. The bottom end of the screw is submerged in a water source, and when the screw is rotated, water is captured in the helical sections and pushed upward as the screw turns. This process continues until the water exits at a higher elevation. The design can function effectively even if the seal between the screw and the casing is not perfectly watertight. As long as the upward movement of water exceeds any leakage, the device remains efficient. Variants of the design include screws fused with their casings, where both rotate together, and those made of bronze or waterproofed with pitch to prevent leaks.

From its origins in Hellenistic Egypt to its modern applications in renewable energy, wastewater treatment, and industrial machinery, the Archimedes’ screw manifests the timeless principles of simplicity and functionality. The device’s influence and widespread use reflect the exchange of knowledge and technology between ancient civilizations. It exemplifies how ideas can be fostered, shared, adapted, and improved upon across cultures.

Archimedes goes to war

From peaceful purposes Archimedes is also credited with two surprising inventions with which to wage war. During the Siege of Syracuse (214 BC to 212 BC) he was instrumental in the defence of the city. Syracuse was an important city-state on the island of Sicily but, more importantly, it was allied with Carthage against Rome. Thus, during the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), Roman forces, under the command of General Marcus Claudius Marcellus, besieged the city to bring it under Roman control. Archimedes was tasked with devising defensive measures to protect Syracuse from the Roman fleet. His contributions included various war machines and innovations, the Claw of Archimedes being one of the most famous.

The Claw of Archimedes

Also known as the “Iron Hand”, the Claw was reputedly devised to defend the walled city of Syracuse against naval attacks. Its design and precisely how it worked is not fully understood since no contemporary descriptions or drawings have survived. Indeed, most information comes from later historical accounts, such as those by the Roman historians Polybius and Plutarch. They, however, describe the Claw as a large mechanical arm or crane, mounted on the walls of Syracuse, with a grappling hook or claw at one end. When a Roman ship approached, the Claw would be lowered to grab the vessel and the mechanism would then lift the ship partially out of the water, destabilising it and potentially capsizing it. Some accounts suggest that the Claw could also drop the ship suddenly, causing significant damage or even sinking it. Considerable loss was reportedly inflicted on the Roman fleet and, along with other war machines devised by Archimedes, a significant psychological, demoralizing impact was had on the Romans. The ability of these devices to cause unexpected damage and thwart naval attacks instilled fear and uncertainty among the attackers.

Archimedes’ Heat Ray

Archimedes’ “Heat Ray” is the second example of a weapon that he purportedly invented to defend the city of Syracuse. This “Death Ray”, as it is sometimes known, is described as a series of mirrors or polished shields arranged to concentrate sunlight onto a single point. By focusing intense sunlight onto the sails or hulls of enemy ships, the heat generated was supposedly sufficient to ignite the wood and cause the ships to catch fire. However, the device would have required maintaining precise alignment, a clear sunny day to produce intense, directed sunlight, and time to generate enough heat to ignite wood. The practicality of using such a device in a real battle situation, with moving targets and variable weather conditions, is highly questionable. The Syracusans, for example, would have had to adjust the mirrors to maintain focus on the target as the Roman ships approached. These technological challenges raise doubts on the plausibility of the concept.

The earliest mentions of the weapon come from later historical sources, such as the writings of the 2nd-century AD Roman historian Lucian [4], or Anthemius of Tralles who, around AD 500, mentions “burning glasses” as an Archimedean weapon. Significantly, these accounts were written centuries after the events described. Even Archimedes makes no mention of a “Heat Ray” in his surviving works. This lack of contemporary evidence has led many scholars to question the authenticity of later accounts and to doubt whether the “Heat Ray” even existed.

While the historical accuracy and feasibility of Archimedes’ invention are debated, it is still a fascinating example of ancient ingenuity and has, therefore, been a favourite subject of scientific experimentation. During the Renaissance a test was conducted by Comte de Buffon (circa 1747), documented in the paper titled ”Invention De Miroirs Ardens, Pour Brusler a Une Grande Distance”. Just over a century later and a similar experiment by John Scott was documented in an 1867 paper. In more modern times notable attempts have included:

• In 1973 a Greek engineer named Ioannis Sakkas conducted an experiment at the Skaramagas naval base outside Athens that showed the concept could work under ideal conditions. Seventy mirrors, each about 1.5 meters tall and with a copper coating, were held by Greek sailors and aimed at a plywood mock-up of a Roman warship some 50 m (160 ft) distant. When each mirror was aligned correctly, the focused sunlight managed to ignite the target within a few seconds. Sakkas was convinced that Archimedes could have used bronze mirrors to scupper the Roman fleet.

• Archimedes’ Heat Ray has featured three times on the US television show “Mythbusters”. Several experiments were conducted in 2004 for episode 5 of season 2 (“Ancient Death Ray”) to test the heat ray. These tests were unsuccessful, leading the team to classify the heat ray as a myth. A year later, a group of students from Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) carried out an experiment using 127 x 30 cm (1 ft) square mirror tiles, focused on a mock-up wooden ship at a range of around 30 m (100 ft). Flames broke out on a patch of the ship, but only after the sky had been cloudless and the ship had remained stationary for around ten minutes. Consequently, it was concluded that the device was a feasible weapon under certain conditions.

• In 2006 the MIT group repeated the experiment in episode 33of MythBusters season 4 (“Archimedes Death Ray”). This time the team used a wooden fishing boat in San Francisco as the target which again resulted in some charring and a small amount of flame. Once more the Heat Ray was placed in the category of “busted” (or failed) because of the length of time and the ideal weather conditions required for combustion to occur. Moreover, as Syracuse faces east towards the sea, for the weapon to have been successful, the Roman fleet could have only been engaged during the morning for the mirrors to gather the optimal sunlight. It is unlikely that any Roman general would have limited their attacks to favour the Syracusan’s defence. Besides conventional weaponry such as flaming arrows or bolts from catapults would have been a far easier way of setting a ship on fire at short distances. In December 2010, MythBusters again looked at the heat ray in episode 17 of season 8 (“President's Challenge”). Several more experiments were carried out, including a large-scale test with 500 schoolchildren aiming mirrors at a mock-up of a Roman sailing ship 120 m (400 ft) away. In all tests, the ship’s sail failed to reach the 210°C (410°F) temperature required to catch fire, and the verdict was again “busted”. The show concluded that a more likely effect of the mirrors would have been to blind, dazzle or distract a ship’s crew.

The Claw of Archimedes and the Heat Ray represent some of Archimedes’ many remarkable achievements in science, technology, and warfare in ancient times. Despite the lack of detailed contemporary records, the accounts of the Claw's effectiveness during the siege of Syracuse have contributed to the enduring legacy of Archimedes as a pioneering engineer and inventor. The Heat Ray remains a subject of fascination and debate, and whether it existed or not, it symbolises the blend of science and myth that characterises much of our understanding of ancient technology. The concept demonstrates an advanced understanding of optics and engineering in ancient Greece. Moreover, modern experiments suggest that, under ideal conditions, a heat ray could potentially work, although its practical application in ancient warfare is highly dubious. Even so, Archimedes’ work extended beyond military engineering. He made significant contributions to mathematics, physics, and engineering, including the principles of buoyancy (Archimedes’ principle), the concept of levers and, as we have seen, the Archimedean screw.

Antikythera mechanism

The Antikythera mechanism is an ancient Greek hand-powered, mechanical orrery (model of the Solar System). It is believed to be the oldest known example of an analogue computer possibly used to calculate and display information about astronomical phenomena. So far, the exact purpose of the Antikythera mechanism remains hypothetical, although the 37 meshing bronze gears identified in radiographic images speak of the object’s significance. No other geared mechanism of such complexity is known from the ancient world or indeed until medieval cathedral clocks were built a millennium later. Moreover, it is not known whether the bronze-geared technology and the advanced mechanical design skills involved in its construction were used for other applications within the Greco-Roman world. Regardless, the Antikythera mechanism remains unique in having the first known set of scientific dials or scales ever discovered.

The remains of this ancient “computer” are now on display in the National Archaeological Museum in Athens. They were recovered in 1901 from the wreck of a trading ship that sank in the first half of the 1st-century BC near the island of Antikythera in the Mediterranean Sea. Its manufacture is currently dated to 100 BC, give or take 30 years, while its quality and complexity suggest it must have had as yet undiscovered antecedents during the Hellenistic period. Its construction relied on theories of astronomy and mathematics developed by Greek astronomers during the 2nd-century BC. In 2008, research by the Antikythera Mechanism Research Project suggested the concept for the mechanism may have originated in the colonies of Corinth and, since Syracuse was a colony of Corinth, implied a connection with the school of Archimedes. This was clearly the premise of the 2023 film “Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny”.

The Antikythera mechanism was fabricated out of bronze sheet, and originally it would have been protected in a case about the size of a shoebox. The doors of the case and the faces of the mechanism are covered with Greek inscriptions, enough of which survive to indicate much of the device’s astronomical, or calendrical, purpose. It is believed that a hand-turned shaft (now lost) was connected by a crown gear to the main gear wheel (pictured right) that drove the further gear trains, with each revolution of the main gear wheel corresponding to one solar year. These 37 meshing bronze gears enable the mechanism to follow the movements of the Moon and the Sun through the zodiac, to predict eclipses and to model the irregular orbit of the Moon. Indeed, the drive train for the lunar position is extremely sophisticated, involving epicyclic gearing and a slot-and-pin mechanism to mimic subtle variations (known as the “first anomaly”) in the Moon’s motion across the sky. This motion was studied in the 2nd-century BC by astronomer Hipparchus of Rhodes, who may have been consulted in the machine’s construction.

On the front of the mechanism is a large dial with pointers for showing the position of the Sun and the Moon in the zodiac and a half-silvered ball for displaying lunar phases. Inscriptions imply that there may originally have been a display of the five classical planetary positions, most likely on the front face, but nearly all the relevant parts are missing. The inscriptions were further deciphered in 2016, revealing numbers connected with the synodic cycles of Venus and Saturn. A subsidiary four-year dial showed when the various Panhellenic games should take place, including the ancient Olympic Games. The large lower dial has a four-turn spiral with symbols to show months in which there was a likelihood of a solar or lunar eclipse, based on the 18.2 year astronomical cycle known to the Greeks from Babylonian sources.

Water clocks

Water clocks are some of the oldest inventions by which time can be measured by the regulated flow of liquid into (inflow type) or out from (outflow type) a vessel where the amount of liquid can then be measured. The simplest form of water clock, with a bowl-shaped outflow, existed in Babylon, Egypt, and Persia around the 16th-century BC. Other regions of the world, including India and China, also provide early evidence of water clocks, but the earliest dates are less certain. Water clocks known as klepsýdres (κλεψύδρες, sing. κλεψύδρα klepsýdra) were used in ancient Greece and in ancient Rome. The word comes from the Greek κλέπτω (kléptō, “steal”) +‎ ὕδωρ (húdōr, “water”), so “klepsýdra” translates literally as “water thief”.

A commonly used design was the simple outflow klepsýdra consisting of a small earthenware vessel with a hole in its side near the base. When unstopped, water drains out of the vessel at a rate determined by the hole diameter. Markings inside the container were used to indicate the passage of time. As the water leaves the vessel, an observer can see where the water is level in keeping with the lines and thus tell how much time has passed. Both the ancient Greeks and Romans used this type of klepsýdra to allocate periods of time to speakers in their courts. In important cases, such as when a person's life was at stake, it was filled completely, but for more minor cases, only partially. If proceedings were interrupted for any reason, for example to examine documents, the hole in the klepsýdra was stopped with wax until the speaker was able to resume his pleading. Given human nature, it would come as no surprise, as some scholars suspect, that klepsýdres may have been used to impose time limits on those visiting Athenian brothels. In Alexandria of the early 3rd-century BC, the Greek physician Herophilos employed a portable klepsýdra on his house visits to measure a patient’s pulse. As one of the earliest anatomists, from his knowledge through dissections of bodies Herophilus was able to deduce that veins carried only blood and, after studying blood flow, he was able to differentiate between arteries and veins. He also noticed the rhythmically pulsing of blood as it flowed through the arteries. He devised standards for measuring a patient’s pulse and used them as an aid in diagnosing sickness or disease. To measure said pulse, Herophilos is said to have made use of a water clock.

Between 270 BC and AD 500, Greek (Ctesibius, Hero of Alexandria, Archimedes) and Roman horologists and astronomers  developed ever more elaborate mechanised water clocks. The Greeks, for example, tackled the problem of the diminishing flow by introducing several types of the inflow klepsýdra. Alexandrian inventor and mathematician Ctesibius is credited as the first to incorporate gears and a dial indicator to automatically show the time. Not an easy feat as the duration of a day changed throughout the year according to the varying length of time between sunrise and sunset. Other innovative designs opened doors and windows to reveal figurines of people, and the 1st-century BC Roman engineer Vitruvius described early alarm clocks with bells, gongs or trumpets.

Summary

From Archytas to Hero and Archimedes, the ancient Greeks’ quest for knowledge was only limited by the materials technology of the day. They understood and harnessed the power of steam centuries before Thomas Savery invented a steam engine in 1648 that would evolve to power Britain’s Industrial Revolution. The ancients Greeks inventors were some of the first to conceive of vending machines, alarm clocks and water management systems that are still used today but which we, perhaps, take for granted. As Tastes Of History researched the topic it became quickly apparent that there were a multitude of other ancient and more modern devices, ideas and machines worthy of mention. We shall undoubtedly return to subject in the future. Bon appétit!

References:

Edwards, M. (2026), “Antikythera mechanism: ancient Greek mechanical device”, Britannica, available online (accessed 13 February 2026).

Greece High Definition, (2025), “The World’s First Coin-Operated Vending Machine: A Greek Marvel of Engineering”, greekhighdefinition.com, available online (accessed 4 February 2026).

Rennison, N. (2023), ‘Q&A: Bird-brained idea’, BBC History Magazine February 2023, p.43.

World History Edu (2024), “Archimedes’ Screw: History and Major Facts”, worldhistoryedu.com, available online (accessed 11 February 2026).

Endnotes:

1. Archytas was an ancient Greek philosopher, who was born in 428 BC in Tarentum, Magna Graecia, now southern Italy. In addition to being a philosopher, he was also a mathematician, astronomer, statesman, and strategos (“general”) for seven consecutive years defending Tarentum.

2. Diodorus Siculus (or Diodorus of Sicily) was an ancient Greek historian from Sicily in the 1st-century BC. He is known for writing the monumental universal history Bibliotheca Historica, in forty books, fifteen of which survive intact, between 60 BC and 30 BC.

3. Vitruvius (born c.  80–70 BC, died after c. 15 BC) was a Roman architect and engineer during the 1st-century BC, known for his multi-volume work titled De architectura.

4. Lucian of Samosata (Λουκιανὸς ὁ Σαμοσατεύς, c. AD 125 – after AD 180) was a Hellenized Syrian satirist, rhetorician and pamphleteer best known for his characteristic tongue-in-cheek style. This he frequently used to ridicule superstition, religious practices, and belief in the paranormal.

A Brief History of Food: Mozzarella

During one episode of the Channel 5 documentary “Pompeii: Life in the City” it was claimed that the Romans ate mozzarella cheese, but this is not entirely true. There is certainly evidence that Romans were producing a similar type of cheese made from sheep’s milk by the middle of the 1st-century AD, but not mozzarella. True mozzarella is made from the milk of the Water Buffalo, an animal not introduced to the Italian mainland until centuries after the Roman period.

Production

Mozzarella is part of broader group of cheeses known as pasta filata (meaning “spun paste”, a reference to how they are made) that includes Caciocavallo, Provolone and Scamorza. Mozzarella, however, is named after its specific production process. In Italian, the verb mozzare means “to cut” or “to take away” and signifies how mozzarella is made by kneading and stretching very much like bread dough.

The cheese is made in two basic ways, either the direct acidification of the milk to form the curds or the culture/rennet method. In both methods, raw milk is pasteurized by heating to a temperature of around 35°C (95°F). This creates an ideal environment for the rennet added to the milk to coagulate and separate it into curds and whey (“curdling”). Once the curds reach a pH of 5.2, they are cut into small pieces and mixed with hot water and then “strung” or “spun” until long ropes of cheese are formed, hence pasta filata. When the right smooth, elastic consistency has been achieved, the curds are shaped by hand or machine into balls. The curds can be mixed with fresh herbs, sun-dried tomatoes, basil pesto, or chili peppers before forming to add flavour. With or without the additions, the balls of cheese are pitched into cold water so they maintain their shape during cooling before being salted and packaged. The whole process from raw milk to finished cheese is comparatively short at usually less than 8 hours. The critical moment is determining exactly when the cheese is mature and ready to be strung. Wait too long and mushy cheese results, while stringing too early will produce a tough, dry cheese.

History

Mozzarella originated in medieval southern Italy in the Campania region specifically near Napoli (Naples), Caserta, and Salerno. By the 12th-century it had become the practice of the monks of San Lorenzo Monastery in Capua in the Province of Caserta, to offer bread and a cheese to passing pilgrims. The cheese was called “mozza”, a term meaning “cut” or “severed” (from the verb mozzare), a reference to the traditional way it was shaped by hand. While sheep’s milk cheese predominated, around this time the rich, high-fat milk of water buffalos was introduced to the region. This led to the first production of Mozzarella di Bufala (“Buffalo Mozzarella”). One legend suggests the buffalos were introduced to southern Italy by the Normans or even earlier by Arabs. Either way the animals thrived in the marshlands of Campania, and their rich milk led to the creation of one of Italy’s most iconic cheeses.

In the 16th-century water buffalo farming expanded and the change from sheep’s milk to authentic Mozzarella di Bufala began in earnest. In a 1570 the word “mozzarella” for a type of cheese made only from buffalo milk first appeared in a cookbook written by Bartolomeo Scappi, a chef to the Papal Court. Two centuries later during the 18th-century the House of Bourbon’s Kingdom of the Two Sicilies [1] is credited with greatly expanding the breeding of buffalos in Campania. The royal family’s strong influence meant the cheese won a special place in the hearts, minds and stomachs of southern Italians. Even so, for centuries Mozzarella di Bufala remained a luxury product. As it was not made from pasteurized milk and because there was little or no refrigeration, the cheese had a very short shelf-life. Made in small quantities mozzarella seldom left southern Italy until the 20th-century when refrigeration allowed the cheese to be transported and become widely available throughout Europe and America. As a particularly versatile cheese there was an enormous surge in its popularity worldwide after World War 2. Today mozzarella is the most popular cheese in America and the second most popular cheese in the world being used in numerous dishes from pizza to pasta and salads. This enormous demand has meant changes, however. Most mozzarella is now made from cow’s milk, but this has a milder taste than the more traditional Mozzarella di Bufala.

Versatility

Mozzarella has evolved over time to the extent that it now comes in several varieties, each with their own unique characteristics, textures, and flavours. Understanding their differences is key to creating delicious authentic Italian dishes:

• Mozzarella di Bufala Campana DOP (The original Buffalo Mozzarella) is made from 100% water buffalo milk to be rich and creamy with a tangy, slightly acidic flavour. It is still produced mainly in Campania, Lazio, Apulia, and Molise. Being DOP-certified (Denominazione di Origine Protetta) means it can only be made in specific regions using traditional methods. Soft, delicate, and very moist, this cheese is best enjoyed fresh in Caprese salad, on pizza (if well-drained), or paired with cured meats.

• Fior di Latte (Cow’s Milk Mozzarella) which, as it name suggests, is made from cow’s milk, primarily in Campania and Lombardy. Its flavour is less tangy and acidic than buffalo mozzarella, but its firmer and drier texture makes it ideal for Neapolitan pizza, baked dishes such as lasagne, in panini, and many other traditional Italian recipes.

• Burrata (the Cream-Filled Mozzarella) is originally from Puglia, Italy. It is again made from cow’s milk with a soft outer shell of mozzarella and a creamy interior of stracciatella (shredded mozzarella soaked in cream). This cheese is best enjoyed fresh, paired with prosciutto, tomatoes, and olive oil.

• Mozzarella Affumicata (Smoked Mozzarella) can be made from either buffalo or cow’s milk. Naturally smoked over wood chips, gives it a deep, smoky flavour. With a slightly firmer texture than fresh mozzarella, it is great for grilled dishes, pasta, or charcuterie boards.

• Treccia Mozzarella (Braided Mozzarella) can be made from either buffalo or cow’s milk and has a similar taste to fresh mozzarella. The cheese is braided for festive occasions making its texture slightly firmer, however.

• Mozzarella Stracciatella is the shredded, creamy interior found inside Burrata (see above). Being extremely soft and rich, it is best enjoyed as a topping for bruschetta, salads, or pasta.

• Ovoline, Ciliegine, and Bocconcini are small balls of Mozzarella either egg-sized, cherry-sized, or bite-sized respectively. They are perfect for salads, antipasti, or just snacking in general.

• Low-Moisture Mozzarella is primarily for industrial use, especially in the US. The low moisture content makes it drier, firmer and less flavoursome than fresh Italian mozzarella. It is used in American-style pizza, where a low-moisture cheese is needed for melting.

Mozzarella’s cultural and historical roots have made it even more special. For Italians producing mozzarella is an artform using carefully crafted traditional methods passed down the generations. Whether it is the luxurious Mozzarella di Bufala from Campania, the perfectly melting Fior di Latte for pizza, or the creamy indulgence of Burrata, each type of cheese tells a story of tradition, passion and artisanal skill. Bon appétit!

References:

Deiana, G., (2025), “The History of Mozzarella: A Cheese Born from Legend and Necessity”, Flour and Egg, available online (accessed 14 December 2025).

Fortunato, B., (2020), “The History of Mozzarella”, The Italian Tribune, available online (accessed 14 December 2025).

Lambert, P., (2020), “Mozzarella History”, The Mozzarella Company, available online (accessed 14 December 2025).

Lee, S., (2025), “Mozzarella Cheese: A Historical Perspective”, Number Analytics, available online (accessed 14 December 2025).

Endnote:

1. The name of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies arose from the unification of the Kingdom of Sicily with the Kingdom of Naples (called the kingdom of peninsular Sicily), by King Alfonso V of Aragon in 1442.

Dispelling Some Myths: Medieval diversity

Despite the best efforts of historians, the internet is still awash with misconceptions about the Middle Ages. Many of these ideas were the product of Victorian writers and historians reflecting Mediæval life through the lens of their own society, as was done by antiquarians before and by historians since. However, after more than a century in popular culture and taught in schools, these sometimes broad, sweeping assertions remain deeply rooted in everyday consciousness, especially when repeatedly reinforced online, in social media, on television and in the movies. Before addressing one such notion, it is worth remembering that the Mediæval period lasted roughly 1,000 years during which peoples’ lives and experiences varied according to time, place and circumstance. With that in mind, just how diverse was mediæval Britain?

A previous post (Horrible History: Colour-blind history) raised Tastes Of History’s unease with how we are all increasingly encouraged to be gender neutral or colour blind in media portrayals of history whether that be on television, in films, in video games, or even in textbooks. In the post we used three instances of history documentaries, historically themed docudramas and straightforward television productions that had engaged in colour-blind or identity-conscious casting. While we were at pains to avoid being critical of actors playing a role, the chosen case studies were intended to highlight historical inaccuracies and then present a more accurate version of history. Wherever possible it is hoped we learnt something from critiquing each example.

People never travelled

This article seeks to dispel a couple of related “myths” we have encountered concerning how widely travelled people were in the Mediæval world and thus how diverse were Mediæval societies. There seems to be a popular perception that people rarely travelled much beyond their village or town. If travel broadens the mind, then some might be tempted to infer this is why Mediæval folk were ignorant of so much that we take for granted today. Some might contend that people thinking the earth was flat in the Middle Ages is proof of such ignorance and an indicator of their unwillingness to travel. Yet, flat-earthers, this is simply not true as we explained here.

What would be true is that many individuals did not have the chance or opportunity to travel very far, but the idea of it being extremely rare is incorrect. It was common for folk to travel to fairs and markets in neighbouring towns. Those of marriageable age might meet their intended at said fair or marketplace and, once married, one spouse may have relocated to a new town or village some miles away. Many people undertook pilgrimages to visit shrines and relics, sometimes in quite distant places, travelling many miles. The Canterbury Pilgrimage Route, for example, is a historic path known as “The Pilgrims’ Way” that connects Winchester with Canterbury Cathedral and the shrine of Saint Thomas Becket [1]. Following ancient trackways dating to 600-450 BC (or even earlier), the pilgrimage route is 119 miles (192 km) long taking travellers through the scenic southern English countryside. Pilgrimages remain popular today being undertaken to such destinations as Jerusalem, Rome, Santiago de Compostela, Fátima, Lourdes or Einsiedeln. Indeed, pilgrim badges and souvenirs, such as the examples pictured from the British Museum’s collection, have been found all over Europe and it was not just the rich and wealthy who took the time to make these journeys.

Alongside the pilgrims the byways of this country were crisscrossed by messengers, embassies, merchants, vagabonds, preachers, missionaries, scholars, and soldiers. More widely, trade drove travel and exploration. Access to the lucrative spice trade, for example, propelled Cristoforo Colombo (aka Christopher Columbus) to circumnavigate the globe westwards to establish a new trade route to India. Little did he know he would “discover” the Americas or indeed instigate a European conquest of the New World and the establishment of transatlantic trade.

Royal progresses

From the Frankish period (ca. AD 751 to AD 887) up to late Mediæval times the usual form of royal or imperial government was the “itinerant court”. Throughout this era Mediæval Western Europe was characterized by migratory forms of government wherein monarchs frequently relocated their court complete with all its entourage. This mobile administration was important at a time when rulers had to be seen to exercise their power in person, especially over potentially rebellious regional nobles, and keep control of their various dynastic lands or kingdom. By constantly changing their residences these realms had no actual centre or permanent seat of government. From the 13th-century, however, itinerant courts were gradually replaced as royal residences began to develop into modern capital cities. Even so, Royal Progresses as they were known remained an important way for English monarchs to govern. After the Wars of the Roses, in his first few years as king, Henry VII (r. 1485 - 1509) travelled widely in England to consolidate his rule. Henry’s successors continued the practice, with the last Tudor Royal Progress undertaken by Queen Elizabeth I in the summer of 1602, mere months before she died in March 1603.

Without a doubt Elizabeth was renowned for moving her court away from her great palaces during the summer months to visit the homes of various favoured courtiers in turn. Naturally, there were practical reasons for such progresses. Firstly, the royal “palaces could be ‘purged’ after several months of residency, especially once the stench of human ordure had become too much to tolerate” (Lamb, 2012). With the Queen absent the royal apartments would be swept and scrubbed clean. Aromatic herbs were burnt to dispel bad smells, and the palace cesspits dug out and emptied. Indeed, it was widely believed even into the 17th-century that “bad air” [2], the polluted stench of towns and cities, spread pestilence and disease. So, the second reason behind the court exodus was a very real fear of plague. By contrast the fresh air of the countryside was believed a protection against sickness making a Royal Progress during the spring and summer eminently sensible. The scale of Elizabeth’s annual Progresses was an enormous logistical undertaking. Not only did the Queen take the bulk of her courtiers with her on these trips around the country, but she was also accompanied by a fleet of her own household servants, including laundresses, seamstresses, cooks and grooms. What is more she travelled with all the usual accoutrements of her court including “selections of gowns and finery for the Queen and her ladies, hats, shoes, jewellery, goblets and tableware, precious books, even a selection of her palace furniture in case the house she visited was too humble for her taste” (Lamb 2012). Additional servants would be needed to tend to the courtiers, particularly the members of the Privy Council who were ordered to accompany the Queen. To host Elizabeth's Progress was considered a great honour, even though the unfortunate courtier charged with housing, feeding, and entertaining this vast travelling retinue would be expected to bear the cost of almost every expense incurred. Undoubtedly many such courtiers hoped to recoup their losses by increasing their status at court.

Not racially diverse?

By now it should be fairly evident that in the Middle Ages people travelled far more than some today might assume. In Mediæval towns and cities could be found merchants, sailors and pilgrims from all over the then known world. Even smaller villages were visited by outsiders during market days, fairs, or special occasions. Yet, with all this movement of people Mediæval society was still not as racially diverse as it is today or as it is sometimes portrayed in historically themed films or costume dramas on television. This leads us to the second related “myth” that the kingdoms and principalities across Mediæval Europe were ethnically homogenous, and Europeans would never have seen or interacted with anyone of African or Asian ancestry. Yet, seeing a black person on the streets of Mediæval London would not have been as remarkable as one might think. Albeit in small numbers, people from northern and sub-Saharan Africa had been resident in Britain since Roman times.

In 1901, the skeletal remains of a woman were uncovered in an ancient grave in York. Dated to the second half of the 4th-century AD, her remains were discovered in a stone coffin along with ivory bracelets, earrings, pendants and other expensive possessions suggesting she held a high-ranking position within Roman York (Eboracum). Predictably she became known as the “Ivory Bangle Lady”. Over a century later modern isotope analysis revealed she had spent her early years in a warmer climate, and the morphology of her skull indicated she had some North African ancestry. The discovery provided evidence that early Britain may have been more ethnically diverse than previously believed. More significantly, her status also contradicts any simplistic notions that just because she had African ancestry, she would have been enslaved.

Just over 50 years later, in 1953, another ancient skeleton was discovered at Beachy Head, East Sussex. The identity of this individual was not revealed until 2014 when modern forensic techniques including isotope analysis, radiocarbon dating and facial reconstruction, concluded the skeleton was female and had lived around AD 200-250. It was determined she was lived in a Roman area in the south-east of England, had died in her early twenties and had sub-Saharan African ancestry. She became the earliest known black Briton, and her discovery supports the view that people from beyond the North African Roman border were also present in 3rd-century AD Britain.

The 1950s also saw the archaeological excavation in York of the largest number of human skeletons from Roman Britain ever exhumed. These individuals were also dated to the 3rd-century AD, with several of them being of African origin. Importantly they reflected the various levels of society from the enslaved to soldiers and once again demonstrated that Roman York may well have been more diverse than previously thought. Since then, other archaeological discoveries have shown further African presence in Roman Britain. The University of Leicester uncovered 83 skeletons in a Roman graveyard, with some of the individuals dating to as early as the 2nd-century AD. Six of the skeletons were found to have African cranial features, two of whom appearing to have been born in England. DNA analysis on a group of Roman Londoners also revealed two with North African ancestry.

There were other Africans who built and garrisoned Hadrian’s Wall. A 3rd-century AD inscription from Burgh-by-Sands near Carlisle attests that a cohort of Mauri from northwest Africa were present. As part of the Roman auxiliary forces, Syrians helped to establish and to build the province of Britannia. In the corpus of Roman inscriptions from Britain, there are numerous examples of individuals who identify as Syrians by nationality. The single most remarkable instance is attested on a lavish (and undoubtedly expensive) memorial discovered in Arbeia (South Shields) at the eastern end of Hadrian’s Wall. The inscription mourns the death of Regina, a 30 year old woman of the Catuvellauni tribe whose lands consisted of the home counties north of London. Significantly, the inscription declares she was a freedwoman and the wife of one Barathes, a native of Palmyra in Syria. Moreover, from his own tombstone we learn he was flag seller, but we can only wonder what the background to their relationship might have been and what Regina and Barathes were doing in Roman Britain near Hadrian’s Wall.

Middle Saxon England included notable churchmen such as Hadrian, the late 7th-/early 8th-century Abbot of Saint Augustine’s Abbey in Canterbury [3] who, according to Bede, was “by nation an African” (Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica, IV.1). Born between AD 630 and AD 637, Hadrian is thought to have grown up in Libya Cyrenaica and was thus a Berber. He moved to Italy after the mid-7th-century Arab conquest of North Africa. He was a noted teacher and commentator of the Bible, was abbot of a monastery near Naples, and travelled widely. He arrived in England sometime after May 669 having been charged by Pope Vitalian to accompany his friend Theodore of Tarsus, the newly appointed archbishop of Britain.

While evidence of an African presence in Roman Britain has been well documented, the relative size of that population is far from certain. For now, however, maintaining an appropriate historical balance is desirable. So, contrary to the current colour-blind casting trend, the available data suggests that non-Europeans were not as commonplace in Mediæval England as today’s media would have us believe. That said, late Mediæval/early Modern (Tudor) records do document groups of Persians, Indians and “Moors” [4] (North African Berbers or Arabs [5]) living freely in small communities in Britain. In fact, from the entries in parish records for London in the 16th-century quite a few “moors” and “negroes” are listed not just living in the city but married and with children.

From 1993 to 2006, Professor Susan Black and her team carried out a series of archaeological digs in the cemetery of the Greyfriars monastery in Ipswich, Suffolk. Nine skeletons from Sub-Saharan Africa origin were found at the grave site. Their presence potentially illustrates even earlier the role of Africans in the Crusades of the 13th-century. The forensic investigation of one of the skeletons was highlighted in the BBC programme History Cold Case (Series 1, Episode 1 “Ipswich Man”), first broadcast in July 2010. The remains dubbed “Ipswich Man” were believed to have been brought back to Mediæval Britain by returning crusaders around AD 1270.

Returning to the Tudor period, in 2021 it was reported that multi-isotope analysis on the teeth of eight crew members found among the remains of the Tudor warship Mary Rose [6] revealed Henry VIII’s favourite ship had a diverse crew. The research by Cardiff University, in partnership with the Mary Rose Trust and the British Geological Survey, revealed chemical tracers remaining within the teeth from the food and water the men consumed in childhood. This provided evidence for their early years geographical location and allowed the team to explore the sources of their diets. Published in the journal Royal Society Open Science, the data suggests as many as three of the eight crew in the study may have originated from warmer, more southerly climates than Britain, such as southern European coasts, Iberia and North Africa. Researchers say the remaining five crew members were likely to have been brought up in western Britain, with further analysis suggesting one of these men was of African ancestry. The team’s findings highlight the important contributions that individuals of diverse backgrounds and origins made to the English navy during this period and adds to the ever-growing body of evidence for diversity in geographic origins, ancestry and lived experiences in Tudor England.

Mediæval society focused on religion and its doctrine but not so much on race, and certainly not as a form of inequality between humans. In his book “Black and British” (2021), David Olusoga offers a revealing insight into medieval perspectives on blackness and whiteness. To call someone “black” in Shakespeare's England, for example, was an insult but not necessarily one connected with that person’s race. Rather the colour itself was charged with negative symbolism. In contrast, “whiteness” embodied purity, virginity, and divinity. The concept is immortalised when Queen Elizabeth I whitened her skin with lead-based makeup to symbolise her status as the  “virgin queen”. Put simply, in the ages old “good versus evil” trope, black was widely understood to signify bad while white denoted good.

While in Europe

Beyond Britain, Mediæval Europe stretched southward to the Mediterranean Sea where, in southern Spain and Italy, interaction with people from the African continent was far more common. By the 1600s as much as 5–7% of the population in Portugal had origins in Africa. Statistically speaking that is not a large percentage of the population of the Iberian Peninsula but the evidence gives the lie to any notion that Mediæval Europe was wholly “white”. Africans and Asians were most definitely present albeit in comparably small numbers.

It would be unfair, and unwise, to claim that all of Europe was racially diverse for the entire Mediæval period. Likewise, it would be equally inaccurate to claim that for 1,000 years across the whole continent there were only ever white folks. Yes, it could be argued that those living in more remote, little inland villages, the chances of meeting people of darker skin tones or of other cultures or “races” was statistically unlikely. Yet, it is not impossible. From the historical evidence it is clear Mediæval people both travelled often, and that Europeans, Africans and Asians lived, worked and died alongside each other in the towns and cities of Britain and further afield. Bon appétit!

References:

Brown-Leonardi, C., (2021), “The Moors, Black Presence in the United Kingdom Before and After the Tudor Period”, Black History Month Presentations, The Open University, available online (accessed 31 December 2025).

Lamb, V, (2012), “Elizabeth I's Royal Progresses and Kenilworth Castle”, English Historical Fiction Authors blog, available online (accessed 4 August 2025).

Sky History, (2025), “The history of black Britain: Roman Africans”, history.co.uk, available online (accessed 6 August 2025).

Stevenson, C., “The Struggles of Travel in the Middle Ages”, Medievalists.net, available online (accessed 4 August 2025).

Endnotes:

1. You may have heard his name pronounced “Thomas à Becket”, but this was not contemporary with his life. Rather it was first used in the 1590s by Thomas Nashe, an English Elizabethan playwright, poet, satirist and a significant pamphleteer. ▲

2. The Italian word mal'aria is derived from “mala aria”, literally meaning “bad air”, a combination of mala “bad” (fem. of malo, from Latin malus) plus aria “air”. ▲

3. St. Augustine's Abbey was originally the Benedictine Monastery of St. Peter and St. Paul but changed its name after its founder St. Augustine of Canterbury's death. The abbey was founded in AD 598 and functioned as a monastery until its dissolution in 1538 during the English Reformation. After the abbey's dissolution, it underwent dismantlement until 1848 whereupon part of the site was repurposed as boarding houses and a library for The King's School, Canterbury. Today the abbey ruins have been preserved for their historical value.

4. The word “Moor” is a historical term coined by European Christians to describe the Muslim inhabitants of the Maghreb (North Africa), Andalusia (Spain), Sicily, and Malta. It derives from “Mauri,” the Latin name for the Berbers who lived in the Roman province of Mauretania, spanning modern Algeria and Morocco.

5. They call themselves Amazigh, the “proud raiders”, but most people know them as Berbers. This term was introduced in the 7th-century by Muslim Arabs who invaded North Africa. The Berbers have traditionally inhabited the lands lying between the Sahara and the Mediterranean Sea, between Egypt and the Atlantic. Today, most live in Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria and Libya. Contrary to popular opinion, the Berbers are not necessarily nomadic with many living in villages and farming the land or thriving on local industries, such as iron, copper, lead, pottery, weaving and embroidery. For millennia, North African Berbers fought against Roman, Arab and French invaders. Yet, despite a history of colonisation, they have defended their land and preserved their tamazight language and culture.

6. The Mary Rose was a successful warship and served Henry VIII for 34 years. She sank during the Battle of the Solent in AD 1545, off the south coast of England, resulting in the deaths of most of her crew. In 1982, 437 years after she sank, the remains of the Mary Rose and 19,000 artefacts were recovered, many thousands of which are conserved and displayed by the Mary Rose Trust in Portsmouth Historic Dockyard, where they have been the subject of extensive research ever since.