On This Day: The VC introduced

January 29th, 1856: The Victoria Cross is introduced.

In 1854, after 39 years of peace, Britain found itself fighting a major war against Russia. The Crimean War was one of the first wars with modern reporting, and the dispatches of William Howard Russell described many acts of bravery and valour by British servicemen that went unrewarded. The result was the introduction, by Royal Warrant, of the Victoria Cross on January 29th, 1856. The first medals were ready to be awarded 18 months later in June 1857.

The first recipient was Charles Davis Lucas (pictured right) was invested with his Victoria Cross by Queen Victoria in Hyde Park on the June 26th, 1857. Almost three years earlier, on June 21st, 1854, during the Crimean War, HMS Hecla and two other Royal Navy (RN) ships were bombarding Bomarsund, a fort in the Åland Islands off Finland. Fire was returned from the fort, and at the height of the action a live shell landed on Hecla's upper deck, with its fuse still burning. All hands were ordered to fling themselves flat on the deck, but Lucas with great presence of mind ran forward and hurled the shell into the sea, where it exploded with a tremendous roar before it hit the water. Thanks to Lucas' action no one on board was killed or seriously wounded by the shell. Fittingly he was immediately promoted by his commanding officer to Lieutenant RN. After a long career, Lucas eventually reached the rank of Rear Admiral in the Navy. He died on August 7th, 1914, aged 80, at his home in Great Culverden, Kent. He is buried in St. Lawrence's Churchyard, Mereworth.

Even today all Victoria Crosses are said to be made of bronze from melted down breeches of guns supposedly captured during the siege of Sebastopol in the Crimea. Historian John Glanfield has since established, however, that the metal for most of the medals made since December 1914 came from two Chinese cannons, and that there is no evidence of Russian origin [1]. Regardless, every one of 1,358 Victoria Cross awarded since 1856 [2] has been made by the same jeweller, Hancocks & Co. of London.

Endnotes:

1. Glanfield, J., (2005), ‘Bravest of the Brave’, Sutton Publishing, pp. 24-35.

2. Awarded to 1,355 men as three of them have been awarded the VC and Bar, the bar representing a second award of the VC. The three are Noel Chavasse and Arthur Martin-Leake, both doctors in the Royal Army Medical Corps, for rescuing wounded under fire; and New Zealander Captain Charles Upham, an infantryman, for combat actions.

Ludi: ancient Mesopotamian games

The Royal Game of Ur, also known as the ‘Game of Twenty Squares’, is a two-player strategy race board game first played in ancient Mesopotamia during the early third millennium BC. The game is probably a direct ancestor of the tables, or backgammon, family of games still popular today. The Game of Ur is played using two sets of seven checker-like game pieces. One set of pieces is white with five black dots and the other set is black with five white dots. As shown below, the gameboard comprises two rectangular sets of boxes, one containing three rows of four boxes each and the other containing three rows of two boxes each, connected by a further two boxes.

The object of the game is for a player to move all seven of their pieces along the course (two proposed versions of which are shown at below) and off the board before their opponent. On all surviving gameboards, the two sides of the board (in blue) are identical, representing the ‘safe’ spaces belonging to each player. When a player's piece is on one of their own squares, it is safe from capture. When a piece is on one of the eight squares in the middle of the board (in green), an opponent's pieces may capture it by landing on the same space. The captured piece is removed from the board so that it must restart the course from the beginning. There can never be more than one piece on a single square at any given time, so having too many pieces on the board at once can impede a player's mobility.

Gameplay: Movements are determined by rolling a set of four-sided, tetrahedron-shaped dice. Two of the four corners of each die are marked and the other two are not, giving each die an equal chance of landing with a marked or unmarked corner facing up. The number of marked ends facing upwards after a roll of the dice indicates how many spaces a player may move during that turn.

Players may choose to move any of their pieces on the board according to the dice score or add a new piece to the board if they have pieces yet to enter the game. A player is not required to capture a piece every time they have the opportunity. Nonetheless, players are required to move a piece whenever possible, even if it results in an unfavourable outcome.

All surviving gameboards have a coloured rosette in the middle of the centre row. According to Finkel's reconstruction, if a piece is located on the space with the rosette, it is safe from capture. Finkel also states that when a piece lands on any of the three rosettes, the player gets an extra dice roll. To bear a piece off the board, a player must roll the exact number of spaces remaining to the end of the course plus one. If the dice roll is higher or lower than the precise number, the player may not remove the piece from the board.

A single game may last up to half an hour. Elements of both luck and strategy are involved, so games can prove unpredictable and a close run thing at the end.

Being Anglo-Saxon

The BBC’s series ‘Digging for Britain’ has returned to screens this month. Hosted by Prof Alice Roberts (pictured), the programme showcases archaeological finds from excavations across the country that took place during 2021. One theme that is noticeable this time round is the evident continuity of occupation at many sites. For example, archaeologists working on the route of the HS2 high-speed railway have found a vast wealthy Roman trading settlement. The site, known as Blackgrounds after the black soil found there, is near the villages of Edgcote and Chipping Warden in south Northamptonshire. An Iron Age village of more than 30 roundhouses established about 400 BC is thought to have developed into a wealthy Roman trading town. Discoveries showed the settlement expanded over time, becoming more prosperous during the Roman period, with new stone buildings and roads being built.

Blackgrounds is not unique. The Heslerton Parish Project studied 10 square kilometres (3.9 sq mi) around the village of West Heslerton in Yorkshire to set archaeological excavations in context. The Project’s leader, Dominic Powlesland FSA, championed a detailed, landscape-scale approach, arguing that studying sites in isolation misses the 'connective tissue' of past landscapes. West Heslerton proved a continuity of occupation from pre-history until today at odds with dividing history and people into conveniently distinct periods. First the Britons were Romanised until the Romans all left only to be replaced by Anglo-Saxons and then the Normans. Archaeology, however, is revealing that communities do not change in quite so orderly ways.

This idea of new arrivals replacing the inhabitants of these isles wholesale is exemplified by historical documents implying Anglo-Saxons more or less completely replaced the Romano-British. But this is far from certain given the contradictory nature of the available evidence. Could the Anglo-Saxons have been so numerous that they simply took over? What was their relationship with the existing Romano-British?

With that in mind, in 2021 researchers from Simon Fraser University (SFU) and the University of Sydney attempted to resolve the question: ‘Who were the Anglo-Saxons?’ Although their origins can clearly be traced to a migration of Germanic-speaking people from mainland Europe between the 5th-7th centuries AD, through three-dimensional analysis of skeletal remains (photogrammetry) the team found that Anglo-Saxon identity had more to do with shared language and culture than shared ancestry.

The initial press report revealed ‘paleoanthropologists have found that when the base of the human skull is analysed in 3D, it can be used to track relationships among human populations in a similar way to ancient DNA.’ As Kimberley Plomp (pictured), a postdoctoral researcher in SFU’s Department of Archaeology, explained the researchers ‘…collected 3D data from suitably dated skeletal collections from Britain and Denmark, and then analysed the data to estimate the ancestry of the Anglo-Saxon individuals in the sample.’ Isotope ratios extracted from these Anglo-Saxon skeletons indicated the incoming population was relatively small in size. Plomp and her colleagues found that between ⅔ and ¾ of early Anglo-Saxon individuals were of continental European ancestry, while between a ¼ and ⅓ were of local ancestry. When they looked at skeletons dated to the Middle Anglo-Saxon period (several hundred years after the original migrants arrived), they found 50% - 70% of the individuals were of local ancestry, while 30% - 50% were of continental European ancestry, indicating a change in the rate of migration and/or local adoption over time.

The implication is that, instead of wholesale population replacement, it is far more probable the indigenous population adopted Anglo-Saxon language and culture. Indeed, as Professor Keith Dobney of the University of Sydney concluded: ‘the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of early medieval Britain were strikingly similar to contemporary Britain - full of people of different ancestries sharing a common language and culture.’

The complete research article can be found here.

On This Day: Agatha Christie's final chapter

January 12th, 1976: Crime writer Agatha Christie dies aged 85.

In her posthumously published Autobiography, she briefly details her experiences as a Red Cross nurse in the Voluntary Aid Detachment (VAD). This organisation was a unit of civilian volunteers providing nursing care for military personnel in the United Kingdom and various other countries in the British Empire. The VAD system was founded in 1909 with the help of the Red Cross and Order of St. John. By the summer of 1914 there were over 2,500 Voluntary Aid Detachments in Britain. Of the 74,000 VAD members in 1914, two-thirds were women and girls.

Agatha Christie is pictured, right, in the uniform of a Red Cross nurse - a long blue cotton dress worn beneath a white apron emblazoned with her organisation’s emblem. Red Cross nurses and those of St. John, whose uniform was a grey cotton dress, a plain white apron and an armband with the brigade emblem on it, became familiar figures during the war.

At the outbreak of the First World War, VAD volunteers eagerly offered their service to the war effort. The British Red Cross was reluctant to allow civilian women a role in overseas hospitals: most volunteers were of the middle and upper classes and unaccustomed to hardship and traditional hospital discipline. Military authorities would not accept VADs at the front line.

Katharine Furse (later Dame Katharine Furse, GBE, RRC), a British nursing and military administrator, took two VADs to France in October 1914. They were, however, restricted to serving as canteen workers and cooks. Caught under fire in a sudden battle the VADs were pressed into emergency hospital service and acquitted themselves well. The growing shortage of trained nurses opened the door for VADs in overseas military hospitals. Furse was appointed commander-in-chief of the detachments and restrictions were removed. Female volunteers over the age of twenty-three and with more than three months' hospital experience were accepted for overseas service.

By 1916 the military hospitals at home were employing about 8,000 trained nurses with about 126,000 beds, and there were 4,000 nurses abroad with 93,000 beds. By 1918 there were about 80,000 VAD members: 12,000 nurses working in the military hospitals and 60,000 unpaid volunteers working in auxiliary hospitals of various kinds. Some of the volunteers had a snobbish attitude towards the paid nurses.

VADs were an uneasy addition to military hospitals' rank and order. They lacked the advanced skill and discipline of trained professional nurses and were often critical of the nursing profession. Relations improved as the war stretched on: VAD members increased their skill and efficiency, and trained nurses were more accepting of the VADs' contributions. During four years of war 38,000 VADs worked in hospitals and served as ambulance drivers and cooks. VADs served near the Western Front and in Mesopotamia and Gallipoli. VAD hospitals were also opened in most large towns in Britain. Later, VADs were also sent to the Eastern Front.

The VAD nurses worked in both field hospitals close to the battlefield and in longer-term places of recuperation back in Britain. They provided an invaluable source of bedside aid in the war effort. Many were decorated for distinguished service. Yet, at the end of the war, the leaders of the nursing profession were agreed that untrained VADs should not be allowed onto the newly established register of nurses.

On This Day: Catherine of Aragon dies

January 7th, 1536: Catherine of Aragon, first of Henry VIII’s six wives, dies. It is said that Henry dressed all in yellow, with a white feathered cap, and hosted a celebratory banquet at Greenwich. The accounts of his exultant behaviour are probably exaggerated, but the King must have felt some relief at the news. A difficult episode in his life, and reign, had come to an end.

Before setting eyes on wife number two, Anne Boleyn, from 1527 onward Henry had been fretting the lack of a surviving male heir through his union with Catherine. His response was to seek the marriage’s annulment by arguing that the Queen’s previous marriage to Henry’s late brother, Arthur, broke divine law. Catherine resisted with stubborn dignity, maintaining that her first union had never been consummated and that she remained the rightful queen. She refused to accept Anne’s coronation, nor did Catherine accept her relegation to Dowager Princess of Wales.

Retaining public affection, for a time it may have seemed to Henry that she was a potential rallying point for his opponents. She would have made an unlikely rebel, however. The final months of her life were spent in Kimbolton Castle, where she confined herself to one room only leaving it to attend Mass. Henry permitted her to receive occasional visitors but forbade her from seeing her daughter Mary. Mother and ddaughter were also forbidden to communicate in writing, but sympathisers discreetly conveyed letters between the two. Henry offered both mother and daughter better quarters and permission to see each other if they would acknowledge Anne Boleyn as the new queen. Both refused.

Catherine died in Kimbolton Castle on January 7th, 1536 aged 50. She is buried in Peterborough Cathedral where it is not unusual to see pomegranates, a symbol from Catherine's coat of arms, laid on her grave. The Cathedral also commemorate Catherine’s death and burial each year with a special service and programme of events.

On This Day: Harold crowned King

January 6th, 1066: Harold Godwinson, formerly Earl of Wessex, is crowned king of England in Westminster Abbey.

Harold was born in the early 1020s, the son of Godwine, Earl of Wessex. He succeeded to his father's titles in 1053, becoming the second most powerful man in England after the monarch. He was also a focus for opposition to the growing Norman influence in England encouraged by the king, Edward (known as 'the Confessor' for his piety).

In 1064, Harold was shipwrecked on the coast of Normandy. William, Duke of Normandy considered himself to be the successor to the childless Edward and is believed to have forced Harold to swear an oath to support his claim.

The following year, the Northumbrians revolted against Harold’s brother Tostig, Earl of Northumbria. It appears that Tostig had governed Northumbria with some difficulty being unpopular with the Northumbrian ruling class, a mix of Danish invaders and Anglo-Saxon survivors of the last Norse invasion. Tostig was said to have been heavy-handed with those who resisted his rule, including murdering several members of leading Northumbrian families. So, in October 1065, the Northumbrians descended on and occupied York declaring Tostig outlawed for his repressive actions. Although the Northumbrians were placated by King Edward’s right-hand man, Earl Harold, the King was persuaded to agree to the demands of the rebels. Tostig was outlawed a short time later, possibly early in November, because he refused to accept his deposition as commanded by King Edward. The resulting enmity between the two brothers would lead to their fatal confrontation a year later.

Edward died in January 1066 and Harold assumed power, claiming Edward had designated him as heir. William now used Harold's oath of 1064 to secure Papal support for his invasion of England.

In September, Harald Hardrada, King of Norway, aided by Tostig, invaded England, but they were defeated and killed by Harold on September 25th at the Battle of Stamford Bridge, near York. Three days later William landed in England. Harold hurried south with his army and, on October 14th, clashed with William’s forces near Hastings. A day-long battle ensued in which Harold was defeated and killed, along with his other brothers Gyrth and Leofwine.

Cleopatra: the African Queen

Cleopatra VII was the last ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty, ruling Egypt from 51 BC - 30 BC. She is celebrated for her beauty and her love affairs with the Roman generals Gaius Iulius Caesar and Marcus Antonius [1].

Cleopatra was born early in 69 BC. When her father Ptolemy XII died in 51 BC, she became co-regent with her 10-year-old brother Ptolemy XIII, to whom she was also married according to Egyptian tradition. Whether she was as beautiful as was claimed she was, nevertheless, a highly intelligent woman; reputedly she could speak eight languages [2]. Cleopatra was, moreover, an astute politician, who brought prosperity and peace to a country that was bankrupt and split by civil war.

In 48 BC, however, Egypt became embroiled in the civil war between Julius Caesar and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (En: ‘Pompey’) for leadership of the Roman state. In that year, having been defeated at the Battle of Pharsalus (August 9th, 48 BC), Pompey sought refuge in the Egyptian capital of Alexandria. Fearing that Pompey would use Egypt as his base in a protracted Roman civil war, Pompey was assassinated in a plot devised by the courtiers of Ptolemy XIII, Pompey died one day before his 58th birthday.

Believing he had demonstrated his power and prevented Egypt’s embroilment in Rome’s civil war, Ptolemy XIII had Pompey's head severed, embalmed and sent to Caesar. The latter had arrived in Alexandria a few days after Pompey, in early October, and taken up residence in the royal palace. Caesar was outraged over the killing of Pompey and, according to Plutarch, cried when given his deceased rival's seal ring [3]. Empowered by Rome to settle their dynastic dispute Caesar called on both Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra to disband their forces and reconcile with each other.

Ptolemy XIII arrived at Alexandria at the head of his army, in clear defiance of Caesar's demand to disband it beforehand. In contrast Cleopatra initially sent emissaries to Caesar, but eventually decided to meet him in person. The historian Cassius Dio records that she did so without informing her brother, dressed in an attractive manner, and charmed Caesar with her wit. The two would become lovers.

With Roman military support, Cleopatra was soon re-installed as queen. Attacked by Caesar’s forces at the Battle of the Nile (47 BC), Ptolemy XIII tried to flee by boat, but it capsized, and he drowned. Caesar appointed Cleopatra's 12-year-old brother, Ptolemy XIV, as joint ruler with the 22-year-old Cleopatra in a nominal sibling marriage, but Cleopatra continued living privately with Caesar. On June 23rd, 47 BC, Cleopatra bore Caesar a child - Caesarion - though Caesar never publicly acknowledged him as his son.

The following year Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIV were hosted by Caesar in Rome. When Caesar was assassinated on the Ides of March (March 15th, 44 BC), Cleopatra stayed in Rome in the vain hope of having Caesarion recognised as Caesar's heir. His will named Octavian, his grandnephew, as Caesar's primary heir so, when Octavian arrived in Italy in mid-April, Cleopatra decided to depart for Egypt. A few months later, Cleopatra had Ptolemy XIV killed by poisoning, elevating her son Caesarion as her co-ruler.

In 41 BC, Mark Antony, at that time in dispute with Caesar's adopted son Octavian over the succession to the Roman leadership, began both a political and romantic alliance with Cleopatra. They subsequently had three children - two sons and a daughter. In 31 BC, Mark Antony and Cleopatra combined armies to take on Octavian's forces in a great sea battle off the west coast of Greece at Actium. Octavian was victorious and Cleopatra and Mark Antony fled to Egypt. Octavian pursued them and captured Alexandria in 30 BC. With his soldiers deserting him, Mark Antony took his own life and Cleopatra chose the same course, committing suicide on August 12th, 30 BC. Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire.


Endnotes:

1. Anglicised as Julius Caesar and Mark Anthony.
2. Cleopatra’s native language was Koine Greek (i.e. ancient Greek). In addition, by adulthood, Cleopatra was well-versed in many languages including Ethiopian, Hebrew, Arabic, Median, Parthian, and Latin. She was the only Ptolemaic ruler to learn Egyptian. Before her, the Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt had refused to learn the native language (i.e. late Egyptian), which undoubtedly explains why both ancient Greek and ancient Egyptian appear on official court documents such as the Rosetta Stone.
3. Plutarch, ‘The Parallel Lives’, The Life of Pompey, in Vol V of the Loeb Classical Library edition (1917), Available on-line Thayer, B., Plutarch Life of Pompey, penelope.uchicago.edu. Loeb Classical Library. p. 80:5, (accessed January 3rd, 2022).