A Brief History of Food: Lobscouse

Next year we will be ‘Sailing the Pirate Round’ once again. As before we will be visiting several English Heritage sites across Britain and introducing visitors to some of the food and drink popular in AD 1700 during the reign of Queen Anne and at the height of the Golden Age of Piracy. Those visitors who sample the prepared dishes nearly all agree that our lobscouse is delicious. It being a mixture of fried potatoes, fried onions, corned beef hash, smoked ham and spices – the recipe is below - what is not to like? However, as we got to speak with people from different parts of Great Britain and further afield, we began to realise that versions of this dish, with slightly different names, remain popular over a wide expanse of northern Europe. We quickly realised that this continuity had a long history, so we set out to discover the origins of lobscouse and its variations.

Lobscouse

It was immediately evident that lobscouse had a maritime connection. The name lobscouse commonly refers to a stew eaten by sailors throughout northern Europe in the 18th century, a recipe that survives in different forms across northern Europe today. According to Webster's Dictionary the first known use of the term ’lobscouse’ dates to 1706 but, as the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) notes, its origin is frustratingly unknown. The OED goes on to compare ‘lobscouse’ to ‘loblolly’ where the latter term is a combination of ‘lob’ referring to the thick, heavy bubbling of cooking porridge, and ‘lolly’ an old British dialect word for ‘broth, soup, or any other food boiled in a pot’. To confuse matters, ‘lobscouse’ may be encountered in contemporary sources written as ‘lopscourse’, ‘lobscourse’, ‘lobskous’, ‘lobscouce’, ‘lap's course’ and in its shortened form of ‘scouse’, more of which later.

Although its origins are obscure, variations of the word ‘lobscouse’ also appear in several northern European languages centred around the North and Baltic Seas. That lobscouse or scouse in Britain is so similar to the traditional dishes found in the Scandinavian countries of Norway (lapskaus), Sweden (lapskojs), Finland (lapskoussi), Denmark, (skipperlabskovs), and in northern Germany (Labskaus) strongly suggests these stews or hashes have their roots in the maritime trade across northern Europe. It is difficult to be certain whether ‘lobscouse’ originated in the Baltic ports as some claim or in Britain, however. That said, the first mention of lobscouse (as ‘lobs course’) appears in ‘The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle’ written by Scottish novelist Tobias Smollett [1] and published in 1751. A derivation of the word first appears in German in 1878, some 127 years later, which tends to suggest that usage spread from Britain to northern Europe rather than vice versa.

Scouse

Scouse is strongly associated with the port of Liverpool, echoing its maritime roots, and its hinterland, in the north-west of England. While other regions of Britain were slower to begin growing potatoes, they were widely cultivated in Lancashire from the late 17th century onwards. By the late 18th century, the potato-based lobscouse had not only become a traditional dish of the region, but its name had, according to the OED, been shortened to ‘scouse’. There is no rigidly defined recipe for lobscouse (or scouse) since it was traditionally made from leftovers and whatever was in season at the time. A 1797 description records that potatoes were:

‘…peeled, or rather scraped, raw; chopped, and boiled together with a small quantity of meat cut into very small pieces. The whole of this mixture is then formed into a hash, with pepper, salt, onions, etc., and forms a cheap and nutritive dish’ (Pike, 2014, 160).

However, an earlier reference from 1785 reads:

‘LOBS-COUSE, a dish much eaten at sea, composed of salt beef, [ship's] biscuit, and onions, well peppered and stewed together’ (Crowley, 2017, 35).

Clearly being a seaport would explain how scouse, ‘much eaten at sea’, became a favourite in Liverpool and why the inhabitants of the city are often referred to as ‘scousers’.

Ingredients

Being a dish intended to make use of leftovers and seasonal fare, the ingredients can vary according to time, place and budget. As a rule, the essentials are potatoes, carrots, onion and diced meat, which together are slow cooked for several hours. Some recipes suggest including marrowbones to thicken the stew echoing the sailor’s practice of adding ship’s bread (otherwise known as hard-tack or ship’s biscuit). Beef is traditionally preferred over lamb but where the latter is used, then the result is more akin to an Irish Stew or Lancashire Hotpot, both of which favour lamb or mutton. The proportion of meat to vegetables can vary from equal amounts to a one part meat to five parts potato. Purists may argue that any deviation from beef, potatoes, carrots, onion is not scouse, but remember the recipes are intended to produce cheap, nutritious meals that are eminently practical, easy to make in a small kitchen or indeed a ship’s galley, and adaptable to the season or prevailing circumstances. In the poorest areas of Liverpool, when funds ran too low for the purchase of even the cheapest cuts of meat, then a ‘blind scouse’ using only vegetables would be made.

Variations on a theme

Focusing just on Great Britain, lobscouse also appears in other parts of the country. In North Wales the full form is retained as ‘lobsgows’ (Welsh: lapsgóws), whereas in the nearby Potteries of the West Midlands it is known as ‘lobby’. The latter is a traditional North Staffordshire stew eaten by poorly paid potters who were often unable to afford freshly prepared food every day. Lobby typically consists of minced or diced beef or lamb, diced potatoes, onions, carrots, leeks, and root vegetables bulked up with pearl barley, and seasoned. As a cheap, nutritious meal made with seasonal vegetables, it remains on the menus of local pubs and on locals' dinner tables today. Slightly further North, the dish earned the inhabitants of Leigh, Greater Manchester the nickname ‘lobby gobblers’ (in contrast to the ‘pie eaters’ of neighbouring Wigan). Interestingly, one writer from Wigan states that, as well as mutton or tinned stewing steak, lobby can be made using corned beef.

Travelling further North, the good folk of Lancashire make a very similar dish called ‘potato hash’. Also known colloquially as ‘tattie’ash’, ‘tayter’ash’ or ‘potato ‘ash’, this is a classic one pot dish combining minced beef, onions, carrots, potatoes and beef stock. Once again, it is a tasty, simple to make, thrifty and economical family meal. 

Lobscouse fit for Pirates

Returning to its nautical roots, 'one pot cooking' would be an ideal way to feed a large crew on board a ship. Our recipe for lobscouse, which has proven extremely popular with visitors to English Heritage’s pirate-themed events, is a variation on a corned beef hash. The recipe below has been slightly updated from the one published in 'A Banquet Fit for Pirates'. However, in the latter post you will also discover a recipe for Ship's Bread which can be added to thicken the dish or more generally bulk out the ingredients. Bon appétit:

References:

Chotzinoff Grossman, Anne; Grossman Thomas, Lisa (1997). Lobscouse & Spotted Dog: Which It's a Gastronomic Companion to the Aubrey/Maturin Novels. W.W. Norton. pp. 18–19.

Crowley, Tony (2017). The Liverpool English Dictionary: A Record of the Language of Liverpool 1850–2015. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 

nordicnibbler.blogspot.com, (2010), ‘Lapskaus: a Hearty Norwegian Stew’, Available online (accessed November 25th, 2023).

Olsens, T.H., (2016), ‘Lobscouse’, nordicdiner.net, Available online (accessed November 25th, 2023).

Pike, E. R., (2014), ‘Human Documents of Adam Smith's Time’, London: Routledge.

Sandvold, Irene O. (2011). Gudrun's Kitchen: Recipes from a Norwegian Family. et al. Wisconsin Historical Society Press. pp. 87–89.

Endnotes:

1.  Tobias George Smollett, pictured right, (baptised March 19th, 1721 to September 17th, 1771) was a Scottish novelist, surgeon, critic and playwright. He was best known for picaresque novels such as ‘The Adventures of Roderick Random’ (1748), ‘The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle’ (1751) and ‘The Expedition of Humphry Clinker’ (1771), which influenced later novelists, including Charles Dickens.

A Brief History of Food: Grog

Grog is a term used for a variety of alcoholic beverages. In naval parlance, the word originally referred to rum diluted with water to which, on later long sea voyages, was added lemon or lime juice.

Origin

During the ‘Age of Sail’, a period that lasted from the mid to late-15th to the mid-19th centuries, sailors required significant quantities of fresh water on extended voyages. As desalinating sea water was not a practical option so fresh water had to be carried aboard ship in wooden casks. During long voyages stored water could become brackish and develop algae. So, where possible, stagnant water was sweetened with beer or wine to make it palatable. Yet, this involved carrying more casks that were equally subject to spoilage. Consequently, as longer passages became increasingly common, the storage and preservation of the sailors' substantial daily ration of water plus beer or wine became ever more problematic.

Popularization of rum and invention of grog

After England's conquest of Jamaica in 1655, rum [1] gradually replaced beer and brandy as the sailors’ drink of choice. Eventually each man was issued one-half of an imperial pint (284 ml) of undiluted rum daily which, unsurprisingly, led to additional problems. Some sailors saved their rum ration for several days to drink it all at once and get roaring drunk. To minimise subsequent illness, drunkenness and disciplinary problems, the Navy diluted the rum ration with water. This had a threefold effect: it weakened the intoxicating effects, the added water accelerated its spoilage and thus inhibited the sailors’ hoarding their ration.

Royal Navy grog ration

On July 9th, 1739 during the War of Jenkins' Ear, one Edward Vernon, a Royal Navy officer, was promoted Vice-Admiral. He had prominently spoken in favour of both the war and the Navy and along with his promotion was given the command of a squadron of six ships assigned to the Jamaica Station [2]. The following year, 1740, it was Vernon (pictured right) who first ordered the daily rum issue be mixed with one imperial quart (1,100 ml) of water, a water-to-rum ratio of 4:1. He furthermore established that half the sailors’ daily ration was to be issued before noon and the remainder after the end of the working day. This procedure became part of the official regulations of the Royal Navy in 1756 and continued until 1970.

It was also from Vernon that the term ‘grog’ (see below) entered naval parlance. Because he favoured wearing a cloak of grogram cloth Vernon was nicknamed ‘Old Grog’. So, it is from his attire that the term ‘grog’ is derived, a name that was certainly in use by 1749 during Vernon's lifetime.

Some have said that Vernon was also responsible for adding citrus juice to the sailors’ grog to prevent spoilage and that in due course this was found to prevent scurvy. Such notions, however, are based on a misreading of Vernon's order in which, having instructed his captains to dilute the sailors' daily allowance of rum with water, he goes on to say that those members of the crew ‘which...are good husbandmen may from the saving of their salt provisions and bread, purchase sugar and limes to make it more palatable to them.’ So, Vernon was not responsible for adding lime juice to the sailors’ grog but rather encouraging them to include citrus juice in their diet. Moreover, given that his squadrons operated among islands where there was an abundance of fruit and fresh foodstuffs, adding lime juice would not have been necessary.

Yet, the problem of the Royal Navy’s sailors developing scurvy on long ocean voyages persisted. Unfortunately, the 18th century medical establishment determined (incorrectly) that the disease was the consequence of poor digestion and internal putrefaction. Standard medical remedies focussed on boosting the body through imbibing a variety of fizzy or fermenting drinks. With such ineffective remedies scurvy continued to be a debilitating disease that wrecked sailors’ lives and disabled ships and whole fleets. Ironically, seamen and surgeons knew from practical experience that citrus juice cured scurvy even if they were not aware of the reason (vitamin C was only discovered in 1912). Regardless, in defiance of the prevailing medical opinion, the Admiralty introduced lemon juice and sugar as a regular part of the naval diet in 1795. When a few years later Spain allied itself with France and lemons became unobtainable, West Indian limes were substituted. It was from this time that British obtained the nickname ‘limeys’.

Serving suggestions

This summer Tastes Of History spent time on ‘The Pirate Round’ during which we experimented with making grog. The recipe, as you may have gathered, is quite simple. We chose to dilute one part of rum with one part of water for a slightly more potent mix than Edward Vernon’s original. In different batches, which also increased the amount of water to rum ratio, we added lemon juice and lime juice to produce subtly different characteristics. Because we were also using oranges in another recipe, we also experimented with adding orange juice which we thought worked surprisingly well for a distinctly zesty alternative citrus flavour. Bon appétit!

Endnotes:

1.  The traditional history of rum claims it was invented in the Caribbean, in the 17th century, by slaves on sugarcane plantations. They discovered that molasses, a by-product of the sugar refining process, could be fermented into alcohol, and then distilled. The earliest record, in a 1651 document from Barbados, mentions rum-making and the island of Nevis.

2. The Jamaica Station was a formation or command of the United Kingdom's Royal Navy stationed at Port Royal in Jamaica from 1655 to 1830.

Sailing the Pirate Round

This year sees Tastes Of History portraying reputable innkeepers famed for our "good food at the most reasonable prices". Of course, we can keep costs low because our chief suppliers are notably "legitimate" importers of "revenue-free" goods (don't ask any questions!). They also operate a most profitable side-line in beach clearances and marine salvage should an unfortunate vessel be wrecked [1] on England's treacherous coasts…who said we’re ‘Pirates’?

Anyway, this summer saw us "Sailing the Pirate Round" on behalf of English Heritage where we visited several different ports of call, including Whitby [Abbey}, Dover [Castle], the Isle of Wight [Carisbrooke Castle], Falmouth [Pendennis Castle] and Scarborough [Castle].

Most of the recipes we prepared and offered visitors the chance to sample have been published in earlier Blog entries, namely “A Banquet Fit for Pirates” and “Pirates of Pendennis”. But for 'Sailing the Pirate Round' we decided to add some vegetarian options and some desserts known in the period. The latter, however, would hardly be typical fare for sailors on Royal Navy, merchant or pirate vessels of the 18th-century, but were offered to visitors as a sweet treat.

Vegetarian options  The first of those is Tastes Of History's simple recipe for home grown marrow, which could easily be substituted with courgette:

The next addition was for pickled mushrooms which, as for many pickles, may be eaten by themselves or to garnish other dishes.

TO PICKEL MUSHROOMS Take them of a nights Growth. peel them on both sides and put water and Salt to them all night. The next morning throw them into water and Salt Scalding hot over fier do but just Scald them and Take them out Again and Lay then to Cool. Then putt them into a Great Glass and putt to them whole Cloves, Mace, Ginger and pepper and then fill up the Glass with white wine and white wine Vinegar. Cover them close and keep then Covered for use.

The above recipe, from Eliza Smith's “The Compleat Housewife”, calls for a mixture of wine and white wine vinegar but she does not include the precise quantities. This version favours the wine over the vinegar but the amounts given can be altered to suit individual tastes:

Another addition was "Pease Pudding", sometimes known as "Pease Pottage" (in Middle English) or "Pease Porridge". It is a savoury pudding dish made of boiled legumes typically split yellow peas, although this version uses dried marrow fat peas, which are combined with water, salt and spices. Cooked with a bacon joint or ham hock makes a delicious pea and ham soup.

PEASE PUDDING HOT, pease pudding cold,

Pease pudding in the pot, nine days old;

Some like it hot, some like it cold,

Some like it in the pot, nine days old.

Favoured by sailors in the age of sail, pease pudding was ideally suited to feeding a ship's company. At its heart are dried peas which, like the dried herbs, can be stored for months on board ship. Moreover, large quantities could be cooked in a large cauldron or pot on the galley stove. Indeed, the quantities given in the recipe below would provide sustenance for several days:

Sweet treats  The first of the sweet treats was Margaretta Acworth’s 1745 recipe for a Georgian period “Orange Cake”, which can be likened to a drizzle cake albeit made with oranges rather than lemons. It is interesting to note that Mrs Acworth’s collection of recipes includes a wide range of cakes that probably reflected the relatively new Georgian fashion for taking afternoon tea. Her recipe for a Georgian Orange Cake reads as follows:

ORANGE CAKES Take the peel of 5 China Orringes par'd very thin, one pound of fine sugar. Beat them together with one pound of flower & a pound of fresh butter melted & lett it stand till cool. Then beat them together with ten eggs.

China oranges were sweet and juicy and, as their name suggests, could have been imported from either China or Portugal from the late 17th-century onward. They were distinct from Seville oranges which were preferred for making marmalade or in other recipes needing a sharper flavour.

Our second offering was a traditional English dessert known as a “Fruit Fool”. This is made by folding puréed stewed fruit (classically gooseberries but any soft fruit will work) into sweet custard, although some modern recipes often replace the custard with whipped cream. Instead of the classic gooseberries, Tastes Of History's version used strawberries because they were in season and, for convenience, ready-made custard:

The third dessert has been known as "posset" since the Mediæval period. Although its origins are obscure, posset is essentially a milk drink curdled by the action of an acid such as wine, ale or citrus fruit juice. This is a very ancient concept linked to the curdling processes used in the earliest forms of cheese making. In its consistency there are Mediæval and Tudor references to posset being drunk in much the way we would consume a milkshake today, However, if the whey was separated from the curds as it was being made, the result was known as a 'posset curd' that was eaten rather than drunk. Either way the lemon posset recipe below produces a rich, creamy and very sweet dessert treat:

And finally, we offered another classic English dessert called “Shrewsbury Biscuits” after the county town of Shropshire that just happen to be an ideal accompaniment to Lemon Posset. Also known as “Shrewsbury Cakes”, they can be small in size for serving several at a time, or larger for serving as a dessert in themselves. The earliest known written reference for Shrewsbury Cakes dates to 1602. The recipe is included in several early cookbooks including “The Compleat Cook” of 1658, which states:

Take two pound of floure dryed in the oven and weighed after it is dryed, then put to it one pound of butter that must be layd an hour or two in rose-water, so done poure the water from the butter, and put the butter to the flowre with the yolks and whites of five eggs, two races of ginger, and three quarters of a pound of sugar, a little salt, grate your spice, and it well be the better, knead all these together till you may rowle the past, then roule it forth with the top of a bowle, then prick them with a pin made of wood, or if you have a comb that hath not been used, that will do them quickly, and is best to that purpose, so bake them upon pye plates, but not too much in the oven, for the heat of the plates will dry them very much, after they come forth of the oven, you may cut them without the bowles of what bignesse or what fashion you please.

The version given below is an alternative to Hannah Glasse’s 1747 recipe for Shrewsbury Biscuits which can be found in the aforementioned “A Banquet Fit for Pirates”. These particular Shrewsbury Biscuits may well have been more at home in the 16th- and 17th-century England of William Shakespeare:

Together with the recipes we have already published, we hope these additions will enhance any Pirate Feast you may be inspired to create. Yo Ho m'Hearties, and Bon appétit!

Endnote:

1. Wrecking is the practice of taking valuables from a shipwreck which has foundered or run aground close to shore. A tradition still exists that wreckers deliberately decoyed ships on to coasts using tricks, especially false lights, so that they run ashore for easy plundering. While this has been depicted in many stories and legends, there is no clear evidence that it has ever happened.

On This Day: Blackbeard's Demise

November 22nd, 1718: On This Day probably the most notorious pirate, Edward Teach, known as ‘Blackbeard’, met his demise. Towards the end of the so-called ‘Golden Age of Piracy’, Teach had terrorised the Atlantic seaboard of the Americas for two years.

He killed fewer people than other pirates, captured only one major ship, and did not plunder enough goods to make himself wealthy. Yet, by the time of his death, he was practically a household name. How then did a seemingly average pirate become one of the most notorious in history?

Although little is known about his early life, Teach was likely born in Bristol, England. He may have been a sailor on privateer ships during Queen Anne's War before settling on the Bahamian island of New Providence, a base for Captain Benjamin Hornigold, whose crew Teach joined sometime around 1716. Hornigold placed him in command of a sloop he had captured, and the two engaged in numerous acts of piracy. Their numbers were boosted by the addition to their fleet of two more ships, one of which was commanded by Stede Bonnet, but toward the end of 1717 Hornigold retired from piracy, taking two vessels with him.

Teach captured a French merchant vessel, renamed her Queen Anne's Revenge, and equipped her with 40 guns. With this Teach’s celebrity quickly rose, largely in part due to his nickname ‘Blackbeard’. In an age where the fashion for men was to be clean shaven, he grew his thick black hair into a long mane and cultivated a beard that reached halfway down hie chest. To enhance his fearsome appearance he reportedly tied lit tapers under his hat to look like he had emerged from the depths of hell and so frighten his enemies. In this manner, Blackbeard was able to subdue his victims through fear rather than lethal violence.

Teach formed an alliance of pirates and blockaded the port of Charleston, South Carolina. After successfully ransoming its inhabitants, Queen Anne's Revenge ran aground on a sandbar near Beaufort, North Carolina. Teach parted company with Stede Bonnet and settled in Bath Town, where he accepted a royal pardon. He was soon back at sea and soon attracted the attention of Alexander Spotswood, the Governor of Virginia, who arranged for a party of soldiers and sailors to try to capture the pirate. On November 22nd, 1718 Blackbeard’s ship was cornered of Ocracoke Island, North Carolina.

During a ferocious battle, Teach and several of his crew were killed by a small force of sailors led by Lieutenant Robert Maynard. Indeed, Maynard engaged the pirate captain in single combat mortally wounding him. ‘Well done, lad!’ Blackbeard reputedly shouted, to injured to retaliate, before being decapitated. His head was mounted on the ship’s bowsprit to be displayed up and down the eastern seaboard of the North America.

Blackbeard’s final battle was much debated for years afterward resulting in a rich mythology. His skull was encased in silver and used as a drinking vessel, or so some said. Others claimed Blackbeard had fourteen wives and buried treasure. 

We can be sure that Teach, a shrewd and calculating leader, spurned the use of force relying instead on his fearsome image to terrorise those he desired to rob. Moreover and contrary to the modern-day picture of the traditional tyrannical pirate, he commanded his vessels with the permission of their crews and there is no known account of his ever having harmed or murdered those he held captive. He was romanticised after his death and became the inspiration for a number of pirate-themed works of fiction across a range of genres. One thing appears clear: no other pirate ever matched his infamy.

Reference:

Simon, R., (2022), ‘Q&A: Who was history’s most notorious pirate?’, BBC History Magazine February 2022, p. 48. 

Dispelling Some Myths: about Pirates

Asked to imagine or indeed to portray a pirate, most people undoubtedly will have a certain look in mind. Who’s now thinking of Johnny Depp in Disney’s ‘Pirates of the Caribbean’ series of movies or, if you are a bit longer in the tooth, perhaps Robert Newton’s portrayal of Long John Silver in ‘Treasure Island’? It is fine if you are as these fictional characters epitomise what we all ‘know’ to be the pirate look. But the look was created by the movies-makers who, it seems, were inspired by engravings from 17th and 18th century publications. Add to the mix a little artistic or dramatic license and you have the archetypal pirate. So, how much of what we ‘know’ is actually true and what evidence do we have to rely on?

What follows has been inspired by Tastes Of History’s foray into the world of ‘The Golden Age of Piracy’ (ca. 1690 - ca. 1730) at Pendennis Castle, Falmouth and at Dover Castle. Unsurprisingly, our remit was to recreate recipes from the period for visitors to sample at the ‘Pirates!’ events at both castles. We therefore set about discovering what we could about food of circa 1700 during the reign of Queen Ann [1]. If you are interested, the recipes can be found here. More significantly for the subject in hand, we were reminded of a number of myths and misconceptions surrounding pirates that continue to influence the popular imagination. With that in mind, what follows aims to dispel some of those myths.

Pirate speak

International Talk Like a Pirate Day is a parody holiday created in 1995 by two Americans, John Baur and Mark Summers. They proclaimed September 19th each year as the day when everyone in the world should talk like a pirate, greeting friends with ‘Ahoy, maties!’ or ‘Ahoy, me hearties!’ However, the holiday, and its observance, springs from a romanticized view of the ‘Golden Age of Piracy’, a view that is the very subject of this ‘Dispelling Some Myths’ article.

Ask most English speakers to talk like a pirate and they will almost invariably reply with a loud 'Arr!' But this oh so familiar ‘pirate speak’ was actually affected and popularised by English actor Robert Newton, now the de facto ‘patron saint’ of Talk Like a Pirate Day. Yet, strangely, there is a basis in historical fact for using a West Country accent.

Newton is famous for portraying pirates in several films, most notably Long John Silver in both the 1950 Disney film ‘Treasure Island’ and the 1954 Australian film ‘Long John Silver’, and the title character in the 1952 film ‘Blackbeard the Pirate’. Having been born in Dorset but educated in Cornwall, Newton chose to use his native West Country dialect to give life to his portrayals of Long John Silver and Blackbeard. This may have been a coincidence or maybe Newton was fully aware of his native West Country’s strong maritime heritage [2] and that many English sailors traditionally came from the port towns of the region. Moreover, when King James I (& VI) outlawed the piratical practices of the Royal Navy in 1609, some crews fled to the Caribbean to continue their nefarious activities. In doing so, of course, they took their Devon, Cornwall and Bristolian accents with them. So, Newton’s characterisations are therefore completely compatible with the historical precedent. Further, his interjection ‘Arr!’ (meaning ‘yes’ in West Country parlance), with its distinctive rolling ‘r’, mirrored the popularity of the films, becoming widely remembered, and is most likely the origin of the archetypal ‘pirate accent’.

Pirate’s dress code

To understand how pirates dressed or how they may have looked, it is worth dissecting the popular image. Most people’s understanding of the pirate dress code is largely informed by movies such as ‘Treasure Island’ and the ‘Pirates of the Caribbean’ franchise, or the grittier series ‘Black Sails’. Taking the still below as just one example, overall, the look is good. Actress Keira Knightly’ s character is costume is clearly inspired by Chinese fashion contemporary with the 18th century. It serves as a useful reminder that piracy was not restricted to the Caribbean but was a worldwide phenomenon, in this case SE Asia. The rich embroidery of her coat certainly would have attracted the attention of pirates, as would the expensive silk from which presumably her garment is made. The two actors flanking her, however, are of perhaps more interest for the present purpose as their costume represents the piratical look in popular culture.

Both Geoffrey Rush’s and Johnny Depp’s basic costume consists of a baggy linen shirt typical of the period over which was worn a long-fronted waistcoat. Each man’s outer garment is the knee-length, woollen coat, with its distinctive turned-back cuffs and adorned with buttons that was the height of fashion in the 1700s. As pirates this would have been a prudent choice. Should they be caught, those active in piracy risked severe punishment under the laws of the time so it makes perfect sense that pirates would not wish to draw attention to themselves, but rather blend in with the general populace. While fine clothes demonstrated a person’s wealth, sailors wore practical garments suitable for the rigours of a life at sea. In that sense, both actors are costumed in the everyday, unremarkable fashion of the period, albeit appropriate to their status as captains. That is, apart from two notable things.

Footwear  Firstly, both Captains Barbossa and Sparrow wear what are colloquially known as ‘bucket top’ boots. If unfolded and the tops pulled up, these boots are essentially copies of thigh high riding boots first worn with buff coats by gentlemen and soldiers during the mid-Tudor period. By the reign of Queen Elizabeth I low heels had been added to these tough leather boots to facilitate riding. During the reign of her successor, James I and VI, boots replaced shoes as the most popular footwear among the upper classes who often wore them indoors, with or without spurs. By the 1620s the flared bucket-shaped top and high wooden heels had become fashionable. Boots of this type are stereotypically associated with the Royalist and Parliamentarian officers and cavalrymen of the English Civil War (see right). It is this style of boot that is often seen in the movies associated with pirates and highwaymen. Onboard ship, however, they are not the most practical footwear. Sailors, and thus pirates, preferred to wear woollen stockings and sturdy leather shoes, the latter to protect the feet. In some cases a man might go barefoot to ensure grip on a wet deck, but this was not the norm.

Headwear  Secondly, flamboyant feathered hats like that worn by Barbossa, or indeed the ever popular 18th century tricorn hat sported by Sparrow, were generally not worn while at sea. Sailing ships require the wind to power them and such winds were more likely to blow a man's big floppy hat overboard. No sailor would waste time turning a ship about to look for a hat in the large expanse of the ocean no matter how expensive it might have been. Much more popular were woollen or felt hats to keep the head warm.

On a related note, helpfully neither actor’s hats sport the ‘skull and crossed bones’ motif so ubiquitous on ‘pirate’ hats for sale. The wearing or carrying of items decorated with a skull and crossed bones is yet another nonsense. Remember the pirates were criminals who faced extreme punishments if caught. None would want to mark themselves out in a crowd or draw unwanted attention so, as previously mentioned, they simply wore the clothes that were fashionable at the time.

Oddly most pirate flags that we are aware of do not feature the skull and crossed bones motif as shown above right. The famous 'Jolly Roger', named after the pirates' nemesis Woodes Rogers, the governor of the Bahamas, was not as popular as we might think. Different captains and crews adopted designs to distinguish themselves from other pirates. Most flags, or ‘colours’ as they were called, did feature skeletons, skulls, weapons or other symbols intended to strike fear into their victims. Even the hourglass held in the Devil’s hand on Edward ‘Blackbeard’ Teach’s colours was intended to symbolise how little time one had left to live if you resisted. Yet even these iconic pirate symbols were not flown on a ship all the time. Rather, the colours were hoisted only at the last moment to surprise and terrify the crew of a prize ship. Pirates knew that if the flag was scary enough, then hopefully a merchant ship's crew would surrender without a fight and avoid injury or death on both sides.

Dress like a pirate  Returning to what pirates actually wore, as has been stated, they dressed in the clothing popular in society at the time. However, life at sea was tough, so sailor’s clothes had to be practical and hard-wearing. A felt hat with a brim would have been good protection against the sun’s glare, but remember the problem of the wind. Alternatively, close-fitting knitted woollen hats to keep the head worn would have been preferable. In fact, a study of the friezes surrounding the base of Nelson’s Column in Trafalgar Square, London reveals most of the crew are not wearing any headgear. The officers are shown with bicorn hats, and a few men wearing short top hats, or possibly straw boaters (British Tars, 2017) [3]. For the sake of accuracy, if one wishes to recreate the pirate look, avoid the ubiquitous movie bandanna as these appear to be another modern trope. Instead use the material to create a linen ‘stock’ which would not look out of place about the neck for warmth and to protect the sailor from the sun.

Slops  Undergarments consisted of a linen shirt, a pair of linen drawers, and woollen stockings. Over this base layer would be worn canvas slops. The term ‘slops’ is a 16th century word for wide, baggy trousers with a knee band. They were popular with seamen because they were easy to move in. The knee bands would be left unfastened until by the early 17th century they were cut off giving birth to the seaman’s trousers. These were called slops until 1628 when The Admiralty introduced the ‘slop’ system for dressing sailors. This comprised a suit of canvas doublet and breeches, woollen Monmouth caps, cotton waistcoats and drawers, stockings, linen shirts, and leather shoes. As fashions changed the cotton waistcoat and canvas doublet were replaced with warm, hard-wearing woollen versions cut in the style of the day.

Sashes  Both actors above are wearing long cloth sashes or cummerbunds. These may not have been worn by sailors as they risk getting caught in the machinery of sailing. It is possible that the inspiration for the popularity of these cummerbunds in art and on film may have come from 19th century artists who thought the clothing worn by contemporary Spanish peasants looked ‘piratical’. This ‘look’ would, in turn, influence early moviemakers who dressed their actors with bright red or yellow sashes; these colours chosen because they showed up better than others on the primitive Technicolor film system. Nevertheless, there is a historical precedent for waist sashes in the armies of the 17th century. In the English Civil War (1642 - 1651), officers wore coloured sashes - tawny orange or pale blue for Parliamentarian, crimson red for Royalists - to help try and distinguish themselves from their opponents. For pirates of that era, the wearing of brightly coloured sashes may have been thought the height of sophistication and martial prowess. Moreover, sashes may have helpful in protecting clothing from any sharp edges on the back of the belt, or possibly as a support to the lumber region of the back. Usefully, pistols, knives or cudgels can be tucked in the sash, and its folds can be used to store a money pouch or something similar. So, although the evidence is questionable there is a practical reason for wearing a sash or cummerbund but probably not with a long trailing end.

Earrings  In pictures pirates are often shown wearing earrings but even this was probably not true. While wearing earrings was the vogue for wealthy men during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, by the ‘Golden Age of Piracy’ fashions had changed and this was no longer the case. Earrings began appearing in pictures of pirates in the 1890s, the later Victorian period.

While on the subject of earrings, it is often claimed that sailors wore gold earrings to pay for their burial. The idea seems to be that if the man is shipwrecked or lost at sea, then should his body wash ashore whoever finds it can take the earring (or other jewellery) and give the lost soul a decent Christian burial. There are, however, a few problems with this notion:

• There is an assumption that the body will be found. It is most likely that the corpse will sink below the waves and be eaten by sea creatures (Lewis, 2014). All that is likely to be left on the ocean floor are the bones and inorganic objects such as a gold earring.

• Corpses left in water for extended periods become exceptionally bloated. Allied to the body’s decomposition, it is highly unlikely that the finder is going to be overly encouraged to search a bloated, rotten corpse for treasure. Moreover, if they do have the stomach for it, what is to say that they do not just take the deceased’s gold and leave the corpse where they found it. Some people are just thieves, a bit like pirates.

Eyepatches, hooks and wooden legs

Like earrings, in many representations of pirates, eyepatches make a frequent appearance, as do wooden legs and hooks for hands. Indeed, in Robert Louis Stevenson’s ‘Treasure Island’ Long John Silver famously had a wooden leg, while Captain Hook in JM Barrie’s story ‘Peter Pan’ had a hook replacing his crocodile eaten hand. The key thing, however, is that these are fictional stories, so did pirates really go about their business wearing eyepatches or sporting hooks or peg legs?

It is not improbable. Take the case of a British national hero, Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson. On July 12th, 1794, while Captain of HMS Agamemnon, Nelson partially lost the sight in one eye in operations to capture the island of Corsica during Britain’s war with France. Significantly, however, no portrait of Nelson shows him sporting an eyepatch. Three years later, now promoted to Rear Admiral, Nelson led an amphibious landing to capture the Spanish port city of Santa Cruz dé Tenerife in the Canary Islands. As he stepped ashore, Nelson was hit in the right arm by a musket ball which fractured his humerus in multiple places. He was rowed back to HMS Theseus where the ship’s surgeon, Thomas Eshelby, amputated most of his ruined arm. Despite this within half an hour, Nelson had returned to issuing orders to his captains. Before his death at the Battle of Trafalgar (October 21st, 1805), the one-armed, partially sighted Nelson fought in the Battle of the Nile (August 1st, 1798), the Neopolitan Campaign (1799), the Siege of Malta (1800), the Battle of Copenhagen (April 2nd, 1801), and the Trafalgar Campaign (1803-1805). So, despite his disabilities, Nelson pursued an active naval career. But would this be the same for ordinary seamen or pirates?

If your intention is to terrify your opponent into surrendering without a fight, then which is more frightening: an eyepatch covering a wound, or the visible scars surrounding a gapping eye socket? Arguably the latter but regardless, the loss of an eye can affect depth perception which is rather necessary for a crewman to safely function aboard ship. Likewise, anyone disabled from the loss of a hand or leg would be far less useful crewing a ship. Essentially, it was much better for all concerned to compensate or pension off the injured man. Indeed, from the pirates' own Articles, such as those of Henry Morgan, we know the levels of compensation paid to injured crewmen:

• Loss of a right arm - six hundred pieces of eight, or six slaves.

• Loss of a left arm - five hundred pieces of eight, or five slaves.

• Loss of a right leg - five hundred pieces of eight, or five slaves.

• Loss of the left leg - four hundred pieces of eight, or four slaves.

• Loss of an eye - one hundred pieces of eight, or one slave.

• Loss of a finger of the hand - the same reward as for the eye.

So, where did the idea for eyepatches and prosthetic limbs come from? To our modern sensibilities it is a rather a disturbing tale involving the sailors residing at the Royal Naval Hospital Greenwich in London, a retirement home and nursing home for former members of the Royal Navy. Known as the Greenwich Pensioners, they were the naval equivalent of the Army’s Chelsea Pensioners. Like their contemporaries at Chelsea, the residents were bound by militarised rules and regulations and wore a uniform of tricorne hats and frock coats, albeit in blue (see right).

During the 18th and 19th centuries it was fashionable for the well-to-do to visit hospitals such as the one at Greenwich or the more infamous Bethlem Royal Hospital, a psychiatric hospital for those pronounced insane (and popularly known as Bedlam). Visits by friends and relatives should come as no surprise, but hospitals also opened their doors to public and casual visitors with no connection to the residents. Today the idea of displaying injury or madness as a form of public exhibition is often considered the most scandalous feature of such hospitals, especially Bedlam. Yet, the hospital administrators actively encouraged ‘people of note and quallitie’, namely the educated, wealthy and well-bred, to visit. At the time there existed a rather elite and idealised model of charity and moral benevolence. This relied on the spectacle of the grievously wounded (or in Bedlam’s case, the insane) to excite compassion in the viewer to fuel fund-raising and to elicit donations, benefactions and legacies. Thus, visitors to the Royal Naval Hospital may well have seen men grievously wounded in battle wearing early forms of prosthetic limbs, such as carved wooden legs, or eyepatches to conceal severe facial injuries all of which were, in reality, intended to preserve the sailors’ dignity. It should not be surprising, therefore, that these images were translated into the works of fiction by authors such as Stevenson, Barrie and others.

Swords

In many of the early pirate films the weapon of choice seemed to be the long-bladed rapier perfect for dramatic, swashbuckling duels [4]. Such weapons may have been the military fashion of the Elizabethan privateer, but by the ‘Golden Age of Piracy’ they were superseded by the more practical cutlass. The two 18th century examples shown right were relatively short-bladed, single-edged weapons ideal for use in hand-to-hand fighting onboard ship. Wielding a longer sword on a crowded deck or in the close confines below deck, or near rigging risked it becoming easily snagged. A man so disarmed would be in grave danger.

Treasure, plunder and booty

In almost all stories and films pirate treasure is depicted as gold and silver, whether coins or tableware, or gemstones and jewellery. While pirates may have hoped to capture glittering prizes of gold and jewels, they were more likely to steal goods like sugar and spices. Such plunder could be sold to make money or swopped for other goods. Few people would have questioned were such things came from if they could be bought at a good price.

• Sugar from the Caribbean had a very high value and could easily be sold to merchants for a profit.

• Spices from the East were popular in Europe and America as both food and medicine so they too were prized by pirates.

• Tobacco was one of the common goods shipped from America to be sold in Europe making it an attractive target for pirates. 

Pirate parrots

The image of Robert Newton’s Long John Silver shown above includes the ever-present parrot (in movies at least). While parrots caught in the tropics may well have been a colourful and saleable ‘treasure’ - there was a trade in exotic pets throughout the age of piracy - they are no accounts of them being kept as pets. As for a pirate carrying one on his shoulder, it is worth remembering that birds are no respecters of fashion so just think of the guano spattered down the back of one’s frock coat.

So, while parrots were not pets as portrayed in the movies, they may have onboard as trading cargo and, given that they are colourful, intelligent birds, crews may have been glad to have them around for a little entertainment on long, dull voyages. As for other animals being onboard ship, livestock would have been kept as a source of fresh food, some ships may have kept cats for rodent control and at least one crew is recorded as having a pet dog. The story goes that, having finished careening their ship [5] on an island, the crew left the ship's dog on the beach. The animal was spotted running up and down the sand, but it took several hours for the crew to turn the ship about and rescue the dog.

Treasure Maps

Pirates buried their treasure and made maps to lead them back to the right spot. Burying treasure was so rare, in fact we are only aware of one instance where treasure may have been buried, that it is simply safer to say it did not happen. As with so much pirate related knowledge, treasure maps were a literary invention in stories like Robert Louis Stevenson's ‘Treasure Island’.

Several treasure maps with strange drawings have been found that are said to have been made by the Scottish-born pirate Captain William Kidd. Treasure hunters have tried to use them to find the location of Kidd's plunder. One theory is that Kidd's treasure is buried in the 'Money Pit', a mysterious hole on Oak Island which is situated off the coast of Nova Scotia, Canada. Some people have spent a very long time and millions of pounds exploring the Oak Island 'Money Pit' but no treasure has yet been found. If it was ever buried there, Kidd probably recovered it during his lifetime.

Walking the plank

Forcing a victim to 'walk the plank' and plunge overboard into shark infested waters is yet another dramatic invention. it is claimed that the pirate Bartholomew ‘Black Bart’ Roberts once made someone walk the plank in the Caribbean, but it’s probably not true and planks were most likely never used. Why would pirates bother with such an elaborate means of finishing off their victims when it would be far easier to shoot, stab or hang people to get rid of them. That said, there may be a grain of truth that when pirates threw a victim into the sea they called out: ’You’re free to walk home!’

The Black Spot

With piratical black humour in mind, the Black Spot was another fiction invented by Robert Louis Stevenson for his novel ‘Treasure Island’. In the book, pirates are presented with a ‘black spot’ to officially pronounce a verdict of guilt or judgment. It supposedly consisted of a circular piece of paper or card, with one side blackened while the other side bears a message, that was placed in the hand of the accused. It was a source of much fear because it meant the pirate was to be deposed as leader, by force if necessary - or else killed outright. But, as with ‘walking the plank’, why go to such theatrical lengths when one could deliver swift, summary justice.

References:

British Tars 1740-1790, (2017), ‘Canvas hats’, www.britishtars.com, Available online (accessed September 10th, 2022).

Lewis, T., (2014), ‘What Happens to a Dead Body in the Ocean?’, LiveScience.com, Available online (accessed September 10th, 2022).

Endnotes:

1. If you have seen the film ‘The Favourite’ starring Oliva Coleman and Rachel Weisz, then that is the period we are talking about.

2. The West Country has had a strong maritime heritage for many centuries. Fishing was the main industry (and smuggling a major unofficial one) that was served by several major ports. As a result, a West Country dialect in general, and Cornish dialect in particular, may have been a major influence on generalised British nautical speech.

3. The Battle of Trafalgar took place on October 21st, 1805. At that time there is some evidence that sailors may have worn a brimmed straw boater known as a ‘tarpaulin’ hat. Although made of straw, tarpaulin hats were coated in a weatherproof seal of black tar, pitch, or paint. It is often asserted that this is where the nickname ‘Jack Tar’ for sailors derives. and Undeniably sailors were referred to as ‘tars’, but tar is ubiquitous on sailing ships and need not come from hats alone. There are numerous advertisements for runaways that refer to sailors with clothing covered in tar. Was this intentionally applied for waterproofing, or was it just the result of working on a ship? (British Tars, 2017)

4. Actors in these movies were trained by, and the fight sequences choreographed by, fencing masters familiar with modern sport fencing using a foil or an épée. Applying the techniques and style of sport fencing to fight sequences with rapiers or long, thin-bladed swords made sense.

5. Seaweed and barnacles grew rapidly on the keels of ships greatly reducing their speed and manoeuvrability. Worse, worms bored tiny holes through the ship’s timbers that, if left unchecked, could eventually sink the vessel. Pirate crews solved these problems by regular ‘careening’, which beaching the ship to clean and repair the hull.

How to: Build a replica Cannon Part Five

The Gunners' Equipment

In Part One, where we established the background to building our replica cannon. In describing the firing drills a number of pieces of equipment were needed for the crew to serve the gun. In Part Five, therefore, we explore how to recreate the gunners' equipment. Each item will be addressed in the order a gun crew would use them, starting with the sponge.

The Sponge was a long staff, often combined with a rammer, that has a piece of sheep's fleece or lambskin wound about its end. Kept wet, this is used to scour the cannon after it had fired and before it was charged with fresh powder. The cleaning extinguished any spark or fire remaining in the piece to avoid the premature ignition of the powder charge. Sponges were the most commonly used cannon cleaning items.

To recreate a sponge we used a 20 mm diameter (Ø) pinewood dowel for the staff. The dowel was given a dark mahogany stain to complete the look. As an interim measure, the staff was inserted the full length of a masonry paint roller. The roller was fixed in place with a screw in the end of the dowel. This solution is less than perfect and will be replaced when a more realistic alternative becomes available.

The Wad-screw or Worm was formed of two points of iron in the shape of a corkscrew. It was used to extract the wad out of the gun. It is also used when the cannon had to be unloaded or dirt removed.

Although not to the correct scale, we chose to recreate the worm by using the appropriate corkscrew shaped tool from a vintage wooden chimney sweep's set, as shown below.

The Lantern or Ladle served to carry the powder into the barrel where a bagged powder charge was not used. Without the ability to turn wood, sourcing an appropriately sized and shaped ladle has proven difficult. As it would be an interesting object to display, when one is purchased or fashioned, then we will publish an update.

When performing "gun drills" in schools, we did not think using loose powder was a practical measure. Instead, we decided that, when practising the firing sequence, it would easier for schoolchildren to load bagged charges of "gunpowder". Individual cylindrical bags were thus made of sewn canvas stuffed tightly with kapok. Each bag measured 200 mm long by 100 mm Ø.

The Powder Container was used to ferry gunpowder from the ship's magazine to each gun. Such magazines were built below the water line so that, in the case of fire or other emergency, the magazines could be flooded. Unsurprisingly, an open flame was never allowed inside the powder magazine.

In the Age of Sail the ferrying of gunpowder was typically performed by boy seamen aged between 12 to 14 years. Such "powder boys" or "powder monkeys" were selected for their speed and height. Being shorter, they could move more easily in the limited space between decks and could protect themselves behind the ship's gunwale from enemy sharpshooters.

To minimize the risk of fires and explosions, loose gunpowder or powder cartridges were carried in sealed containers. In the first quarter of 19th-century the Royal Navy used staved wood buckets covered in canvas inside and out. Some of the surviving examples are decorated with a painted and gilt accented Royal coat of arms. Although the one shown right is missing its lid, its leather carrying handle is still attached.

As of posting, the intention remains to fashion a barrel-like powder bucket to carry six of the bagged charges previously described. From information on the originals, the dimensions vary, but the example buckets we have seen are generally between 410 mm and 440 mm (16" and 18") tall, with a diameter of approximately 200 mm (8"). Given that the result will be covered in canvas, the barrel body will be recreated using a 200 mm diameter plastic drainpipe. Flexible plywood will be used to make the three wide hoops similarly disguised beneath the canvas cover. Adding a lid and leather handle will finish the look [note 1].

The Rammer was a round piece of wood, commonly called a "box", which served to drive home the powder and ball to the breech. It was fastened to a stick twelve feet long, for the pieces from twelve to thirty-three pounders, and ten feet long for the eight and four pounders.

For simplicity, we chose to recreate a combination sponge and rammer. So, to the opposite end of the sponge staff, a turned wooden mortar was repurposed to create the aforementioned box. A 20 mm Ø hole was bored through its base to accommodate the sponge's wooden dowel. The mortar bowl was then sealed using a plywood blanking disc cut to size and glued in place. The box was stained to match.

The Priming Iron is a pointed iron rod, used to clear the touch (vent) hole of burnt powder or dirt. It is also used to pierce the cartridge so the priming powder when lit ignites the main charge.

We used a 1.5 mm mild steel rod, painted black to look like iron. One end was given a blunted point, while the other end was looped to which a leather wrist strap was added.

The Primer contained at least one pound of gunpowder. It was used to prime the vent hole with gunpowder which, when lit, ignited the main charge in the cannon's breech. For our purposes, priming the vent can be simulated by using a pre-owned powder horn, albeit without the powder.

The Botefeux was used to hold a winding of match with which to fire the cannon. This may be a stick two or three feet long with a split to hold one end of the match.

The Quoin is used to elevate or depress the cannon. Typically, therefore, the quoin is a wooden wedge that lowers the barrel the further it is pushed forward.

The version shown right is a simple 5 mm plywood box cut, glued and pinned to create the wedge shape. The handle is a short piece of dowel topped with a wooden drawer knob. The "quoin" was painted to match the colour of the gun carriage.

Next... In the final part of the build, we explore how to recreate the gun tackle. Please bear with us as this may take some time to come to fruition...

Notes:

1. This article will be updated as new elements are fashioned or alterations made.