About History: Poisoned!

Throughout human history, from before 4500 BC to the present day, our search for medicinal cures for a range of ailments has brought us into contact with nature’s poisons. Classic ones like Hemlock, Deadly Nightshade, Aconite, Foxglove, Opium, and Strychnine have all been used as cure-alls for the humble head cold to heart conditions. Toxic metals like Mercury, Lead, and Arsenic were incorporated in makeup and have been ingredients in medicines that were still lining pharmacy shelves into the 20th-century. Since the beginning, different lethal concoctions have been in or out of fashion, largely due to whatever could be found on the local herbalist or apothecary’s shelves.

Discovered in ancient times, poison was used by early humans as a hunting tool to quicken and ensure the death of their prey, or their enemies. The indigenous people of South America, for example, used plant extracts and toxin from venomous frogs to create poison darts. The Scythians, nomadic tribes of the Central Asian steppe, were famous for their poison arrowheads, as were the Indians who used them against the army of Alexander the Great. Poisoning was often used to murder rivals or leading figures because their very nature meant they could be deployed in secret, and at distance, significantly reducing the chance of retribution. Indeed, at a time when knowledge of poisons and their antidotes was emerging, poisoning itself might go undetected thus constituting the perfect crime. Over time usage grew more advanced, and many ancient peoples began forging weapons designed specifically to enhance poisoning. The variety of harmful uses continued to increase throughout history, often in parallel with the means for curing their effects. In the modern world, intentional poisoning is less common than, say, in the Middle Ages. Rather, the biggest concern is the risk of accidental poisoning from everyday substances and products. Today, poisons are now used as pesticides, disinfectants, cleaning solutions, and as preservatives.

Fiction

Popular culture commonly promotes the idea that poisoning is the sole remit of women with murderous intent. Quite literally this is a fiction. Various poisons have been used throughout human history to remove rivals, and it was not just women who employed lethal toxins. Most convicted poisoners have been men, and “overwhelmingly so when the victim is a woman” (Blum, 2013). None of which should seem strange given that statistically most murderers are male. But poisons are bread and butter for the great crime novelists. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1859 – 1930), for example, frequently used poison in his Sherlock Holmes stories. South American arrow poison compounded into a pill was the means of death in “A Study in Scarlet”, while a vegetable alkaloid of a Strychnine-like substance applied to a thorn killed someone in “A Sign of Four”. In “The Adventure of the Speckled Band”, snake venom was the poison of choice and in “The Adventure of the Greek Interpreter”, Cyanide proved to be the victim’s undoing.

The most acclaimed author of the Golden Age of Detective Fiction is undisputedly Agatha Christie (1890-1976), the “Queen of Crime”. During both World Wars, Christie worked in hospital dispensaries where she gained an expert pharmaceutical knowledge especially concerning potentially toxic drugs. Consequently, more than thirty characters were killed with poisons in her sixty-six mystery novels. Cyanide was the poison she employed most often, followed by Arsenic, Strychnine, Digitalis, then Morphine. Less often she used the more unusual poisons such as Thallium, Coniine, Bacillus anthracis, Phosphorus, and Monkshood. From the medical poison family, she employed Belladonna, Physostigmine, Morphine, sleeping pills, and Amyl Nitrate. It is no wonder that the era of Christie and her contemporaries is known as the Golden Age of Poisons.

Ancient Egypt

Long before crime novelists championed the use of poisons, they had been a murderous tool for pharaohs, emperors, and kings. One of the earliest medical documents, the Ebers Papyrus written around 1550 BC, records several Egyptian poison recipes in hieroglyphics. From this record it is thought the Egyptians may have had knowledge about elements such as Antimony, Copper, crude Arsenic, Lead, Opium, and Mandrake among others. It is thought that the first known Egyptian pharaoh, Menes, may have studied the properties of poisonous plants and venoms. Yet while he may have only experimented with deadly toxins, the last pharaoh of Egypt definitely used poison. When Cleopatra Ptolemy VII learned that Gaius Octavius (the future first Roman emperor Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus) planned for her to be part of his triumphal procession in Rome, she killed herself by poisoning (contrary to the popular belief that she was bitten by an Asp).

Ancient Rome

With Cleopatra dead by her own hand, the Romans seized Egypt making it another province (Latin: provincia) of their expanding Empire. Thus, the next protagonists in our potted history of poison are the ancient Romans who were certainly no stranger to poisonings with significant assassinations mentioned throughout the Republican and Imperial periods.

Indeed, poisoning carried out at the dinner table or common eating or drinking area became a common occurrence. If Romans were feeling unwell after a meal, whether from overeating, excessive drinking or otherwise, it was considered wise to use an emetic - something to induce vomiting. They thought it made no sense to remain feeling ill if you could do something about it. This would have been especially true if one had been “inadvertently” poisoned at dinner. However, the idea of inducing vomiting and quick trips to the “vomitorium” (pl. vomitoria) is a common modern misinterpretation. The Oxford English Dictionary attributed this misconception to Aldus Huxley in 1923, but it may have had an even earlier 19th-century origin. Either way it is simply not true as, dear reader, you can find out here.

Beginning as early as 331 BC, assassination by poisoning had become such a problem that a specific law, the “Lex Cornelia”, was issued to ban the use of fatal tinctures. Even so, the problem only grew as many sought to advance their personal prospects in Roman society. The use of poisonous substances is evident among every social class but difficult to prove for historians viewing the past through the murky lens of incomplete history. The writer Livy describes how the nobility would often use poisons to dispose of unwanted political or economic opponents, and six Roman emperors met their end by poison. Notably, the fourth such emperor, Claudius, was reputedly murdered by his own wife with poisoned mushrooms or possibly poison herbs (but see InfoBox). While Claudius’ food taster, Halotus, his doctor, Gaius Stertinius Xenophon, and the infamous poisoner Locusta have all been accused of administering the fatal substance, it is his last wife, Agrippina, who is considered the most likely to have arranged the murder. Desperate to advance her son Nero to the throne she may have even administered the poison herself. Like mother, like son, Nero also favoured the use of poisons on his relatives. Indeed, he secured his imperial position by poisoning his stepbrother and rival, Britannicus. Nero is also known to have hired a personal poisoner, and it is said the emperor’s preferred modus operandi was a Cyanide enema.

Mediæval magic

After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the quest for knowledge seemingly stalled. That is not to say inquisitive mediaeval scholars simply gave up but church doctrine, folklore, and a common belief in magic held sway over the popular conscience. The same appears not to be true in the Islamic world where Arab philosophers and scientists preserved and expanded upon ancient Greek works, especially those of Aristotle and Euclid. Moreover, using the surviving manuscripts of ancient Greek philosophers, experiments with poisons and antidotes led Arab scholars and physicians to produce the highly influential texts that advanced the field of toxicology. More widely, these Arabic works were translated into Latin which, combined with increased contact with the Islamic world, brought a resurgence of learning that significantly revitalizing European philosophy and science in the 12th- and 13th-centuries. These changes paved the way for later achievements by the literary and artistic movements of the Italian Renaissance in the 15th-century and the scientific developments of the 17th-century.

Elsewhere

Further afield, the father of Chinese herbal medicine, Shen Nung, died of an accidental overdose having sampled 365 herbs. The first Chinese emperor, Qin Shi Huang, is also said to have been poisoned by an elixir containing mercury given to him by his court alchemists and physicians in his quest for immortality. The cause of Qin Shi Huang's death remains unknown, however. It could easily have been that he was worn down by his many years of rule.

Executing criminals by poison was an accepted practice in the ancient civilizations of India, Persia, and Greece. These societies are also known to have used poison to assassinate rivals for political gain. For example, Chānakya (ca.  350–283 BC), also known as Kautilya, was adviser and prime minister to the first Maurya Emperor Chandragupta (ca.  340–293 BC). Kautilya advised employing seduction, the secret use of weapons, and poison for political gain. He also urged detailed precautions against assassination including food tasters and elaborate ways to detect poison. In Mughal India there also existed an ancient custom of giving khalats - the loose, long-sleeved outer silk or cotton robes common in Asia - to friends and enemies as demonstrations of a social relationship or a political alliance. Numerous tales of khalats being poisoned are recorded in historical, folkloric, and medical texts of British Indianists. In 1870, three cases of lethally toxic khalats were documented by Norman Chevers, MD, a Surgeon-Major to the Bengal Medical Service. On one occasion the cause of death was attributed to lethal blister agents impregnated into the fabric of the robe that entered the victim's sweat pores.

Pick Your Poison

People in ancient and Mediæval times had many poisons to choose from. The following are in alphabetical order rather than listed according to their toxicity or popularity:

Aconitum

Aconitum, the “Queen of Poisons”, also known as Aconite, Monkshood, Wolfsbane, Leopard's Bane, Devil's Helmet, or Blue Rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants most of which are extremely poisonous and must be handled very carefully. Substantial amounts of the highly toxic aconitine and related alkaloids can be extracted from the plant’s roots and tubers. As little as 2 mg of aconitine or 1 g of plant may cause death from respiratory paralysis or heart failure. Several indigenous tribes around the world use its extract as arrow poison. It was considered so deadly that growing it was forbidden in ancient Rome. In the Middle Ages, aconite was one of the ingredients in a potion said to be used by witches to give them the feeling of flying.

Charged with religious heresy and corrupting the morals of local youths, the Greek philosopher Socrates was condemned to death. The tradition is that he poisoned himself with hemlock (Conium maculatum), which contains the active alkaloid coniine. But it has also been very occasionally hypothesized that he was executed using an extract from an Aconitum species, such as Aconitum napellus [1]. The ancient Greeks were clearly familiar with this poison commonly using it on arrows and in other forms of poisoning. It has been thought that both Alexander the Great and Ptolemy XIV Philopator were murdered using Aconite, although the former may have been killed with Strychnine. As for Ptolemy XIV Philopator, it has been assumed - although it is far from certain - that he was poisoned with aconite by his co-ruler and older sister, Cleopatra Ptolemy VII. The death of her brother cleared the way for Cleopatra’s son by Gaius Julius Caesar, Ptolemy XV Caesar, to replace his uncle and be proclaimed co-ruler on 2 September 44 BC.

Arsenic

Arsenic, the “King of Poisons”, only needs a pea-sized drop to kill an adult. One of the great thinkers of the Islamic Golden Age, alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan, produced a deadly white powder that was odourless, tasteless, and totally undetectable in the human body. It was a lethal compound of arsenic, a naturally occurring and ubiquitous element that becomes toxic when converted to arsenic trioxide, or white arsenic.

Arsenic (chemical symbol As) is found naturally throughout the environment, including in some foods. It is also used in certain common products, including pesticides and pressure-treated wood. It is a metalloid element that kills by inhibiting enzyme production disrupting energy transfer to the body’s cells, which begin to die off and disrupt basic bodily functions. With a high enough dose, or if consumed gradually over time, vital organs will start to fail. 

Arsenic was a popular poison because it was easy to obtain. For centuries, various civilizations had used its compounds medicinally. It was used in Chinese medicine, by the Greek physician Hippocrates, by mediæval alchemists in search of the elixir of life, and by 18th-century doctors who turned to an arsenic-based solution to treat everything from asthma to syphilis. In Victorian England, arsenic was surprisingly easy to come by. Anyone could simply walk into a chemist shop or market and for a few pence obtain some rat poison or arsenic powder to smooth a lady’s complexion.

The same powdered arsenic could be mixed into a glass of wine or food unnoticed and, if carefully dosed, it could take hours, days, or even months for any symptoms to show, making it very hard to trace. Indeed, the symptoms of arsenic poisoning (diarrhoea, confusion, and vomiting) were easily mistaken for cholera, dysentery, and other common diseases of the time. This made murder easy to suspect, yet difficult to prove. Even if poison was suspected, up until the 19th-century there was no way to detect arsenic in the body after death. Today, that is no longer the case as modern chemical analysis can easily detect the poison’s presence.

Arsenic was a common way of tampering with the natural line of succession, and it was so effective, a plague of poisonings swept across the wealthy nations of the world for centuries. Members of the House of Borgia, an infamous 15th-century Italian noble family, were renowned for using arsenic to murder rivals and enemies. Lucrezia Borgia, the illegitimate daughter of Pope Alexander VI (Rodrigo Borgia) and Vannozza dei Cattanei, was reputed to be a skilled poisoner. While it is certain that the Borgia family poisoned cardinals, bishops, and nobles, many of the accusations made against Lucrezia appear to have been false. As a family they experimented with Strychnine, Aconite, and other toxins on animals and the poor. They eventually created a deadly formula known as Cantarella whose recipe remain a mystery but is thought to have been a mix of arsenic and blister beetles. Either way, the resulting vials of poison were reputedly stored in the family’s wine cellar, which is rather apt as the Borgia’s modus operandi was to mix Cantarella into the wine of unfortunate dinner guests. Their victims might turn up dead weeks or months later; the length of time having been carefully pre-determined by the poisoner. This was executed so skilfully that “tasting the cup of the Borgias” became a euphemism for a sudden or mysterious death.

The use of Arsenic was not the preserve of the Borgias. Rather, by the end of the 16th-century knowledge of its utility was spreading across the city of Paris. Thousands of poison practitioners were said to have mastered its use such that Arsenic compounds were so commonly used to eliminate wealthy or noble members of the French bourgeoisie that the poison became known as the poudre de succession, or “inheritance powder.” Towards the end of the century, a major murder scandal raged through the decadent court at Versailles during the reign of King Louis XIV. Known as the Affair of the Poisons (French: affaire des poisons), between 1677 and 1682, several prominent members of the aristocracy were implicated and sentenced on charges of poisoning and witchcraft. The scandal reached into the inner circle of the king and led to the execution of 36 people. At its centre was a fortune teller named Catherine Deshayes, better known as “La Voisin.” Pedalling a mix of Arsenic, Belladonna, Aconite, and Opium, she sold poison to many noblewomen looking to rid themselves of an unwanted child or spouse, including the king’s mistress. The scale of the affair forced Louis XIV to issue a decree banning Arsenic and other poisons from being sold at apothecaries on penalty of death.

By the 19th-century, for a Victorian woman seeking to leave her husband, Arsenic was much easier to obtain than a divorce. When allied with the burgeoning business of life insurance, husband-killing became all the rage. The Victorian era soon became known as the “golden age” of Arsenic poisoning producing many famous Arsenic-based homicide cases. The murderess Mary Ann Cotton, for example, killed three husbands - as well as one fiancé and many of her children and stepchildren - to cash in on the life insurance (Neil, 2020). Parliament attempted to quell Arsenic induced deaths by passing legislation forbidding women from buying the poison but, as with most laws of this type, those intent on illegality simply ignored the act.

Belladonna

Belladonna (Atropa belladona) gets its name from two Italian words bella and donna to mean “beautiful lady” as the plant was a popular cosmetic in the Middle Ages. Mediæval women used the juice of the berries as a blush to colour their cheeks, but probably not a good choice for lip stain as that would make ingestion much easier. Diluting extracts from the plant in water made eye drops to dilate the pupils, making a lady appear attracted to her suitor (an effect that occurs naturally when a person is in love).

Another name for this toxic perennial herbaceous plant is Deadly Nightshade, with good reason. The plant is high in toxic chemicals solanine, hyoscine (scopolamine) and atropine. Juice from the plant or its berries was used to poison arrow tips. Eating a single leaf or a few berries of Nightshade could cause hallucinations. Eating 10 or more of the berries can be a lethal dose. While there is a report of one person who ate about 25 berries and lived to tell the tale, it should go without saying - do not try to emulate or better this foolhardy act.

Legend also has it that Macbeth used Deadly Nightshade to poison Danes invading Scotland in 1040. As mentioned earlier, there is some suspicion that, contracted by Agrippina the Younger, the serial killer Locusta may have used Belladonna to kill Agrippina’s husband the Roman Emperor Claudius. Staying in Rome, in the 1650s, Giulia Tofana was one of possibly six women who ran a poisoning ring selling “Aqua Toffana” to women who wanted to escape abusive or inconvenient spouses. The poison of choice was a concoction of arsenic and Belladonna supplied in cosmetics bottles and disguised as makeup. A few drops were enough to cause a slow and untraceable death. The ring may have been behind the death of some 600 people, including two popes and countless husbands.

There are few confirmed cases of accidental deaths from Deadly Nightshade, but there are common plants related to Belladonna that can make you sick. For example, it is feasibly possible to get solanine poisoning from other plants in the nightshade family Solanaceae such as tomatoes, potatoes and aubergine (eggplant).

Digitalis purpura 

Digitalis purpura (“common Foxglove”) is probably the best known of a genus of about 20 species of herbaceous perennial plants, shrubs, and biennials, commonly called foxgloves. All parts of these plants (including the roots and seeds) are poisonous, and the toxins can be absorbed via the skin or ingestion. Foxglove has medicinal uses but is also very toxic to humans and other mammals, such that consumption can cause serious illness or death. Depending on the species, the digitalis plant may contain several deadly physiological and chemically related cardiac and steroidal organic compounds. As a result, the digitalis plants have earned several, more sinister, names such as Dead Man's Bells and Witch's Gloves.

An overdose of digitalis and can cause gastrointestinal effects including appetite loss, nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea. It can cause cardiac effects such as tachycardia (increased heart rate), and bradycardia (decreased heart rate) either of which, if severe enough, can result in fainting or passing out. Digitalis’ neurological effects include fatigue, delirium, and very occasionally jaundiced or yellow vision. Other effects include generalized blurry vision, as well as the appearance of blurred outlines (“halos”), dilated pupils, drooling, weakness, collapse, seizures, and even death.

Hellebore

Commonly known as hellebores, the Eurasian genus Helleborus consists of approximately 20 species of herbaceous or evergreen perennial flowering plants in the family Ranunculaceae. Many hellebore species are poisonous, and despite common names such as winter rose, Christmas rose, and Lenten rose, hellebores are not closely related to the rose family (Rosaceae). It might be tempting to think that the plant’s name is somehow linked to “hell” given its toxic nature, but this would be stretching things too far. The common name “hellebore” is first attested in 1300s but originally derived from the ancient Greek ἑλλέβορος (Romanised as helléboros) which came into common English usage via Old French and Latin.

While all plants, and all parts of the helleborus plant, are toxic, hellebore poisoning is rare. Most animals, such as deer and rabbits, eschew the plants because the leaves produce various toxins making them distasteful to animals. When poisonings do occur, they are usually through ingestion or handling. Indeed, skin inflammation (Dermatitis) can occur simply from handling hellebore plants (especially the leaves, stem, and flower) or through exposure to its sap without protection. Even attempts to remove the seeds by hand could potentially cause chemical burns. That said, small or minimal exposure to the toxins should only cause a mild irritation to the skin, and the affliction should only last for a few minutes. If the burning persists or intensifies, however, it is recommended to wash the affected areas thoroughly to remove the toxins and see a doctor.

Poisoning cases are most severe when hellebore plants are ingested. This is especially true when hellebores are eaten in large quantities with fatal consequences. Symptoms of ingestion include burning of the mouth and throat, salivation, vomiting, abdominal cramping, diarrhoea, nervous symptoms, and possibly depression. The first documented case of chemical warfare using hellebore occurred in the 6th-century BC during the First Sacred War fought between the Amphictyonic League of Delphi [1] and the city of Kirrha. The conflict arose due to Kirrha's frequent robbery and mistreatment of pilgrims travelling to the Oracle at Delphi [2], a site sacred to the god Apollo, and their encroachments upon Delphic land. Writing in the 5th-century BC, the medical author Thessalos recorded that, during the siege the city of Kirrha, the attackers discovered a secret water-pipe leading into the city after it was broken by a horse's hoof. A doctor named Nebros advised the allies to poison the water with hellebore which rendered the defenders so weak with diarrhoea that they were unable to resist the assault. Kirrha was captured and the entire population was slaughtered.

Hemlock

Hemlock (Conium maculatum), favoured beverage of disgraced philosophers, is a tall fern-like, flowering plant with roots resembling carrots. Readily available, all parts of the plant are rich in toxic alkaloids ideal for treating muscle spasms, ulcers, and swelling, but in large doses will cause paralysis and ultimately death from respiratory failure. Near the end, a victim of hemlock poisoning cannot move, yet remains aware of their surroundings.

In ancient Athens it was the drug of choice for capital punishment and known as “State Poison”. The most famous case of hemlock poisoning is the death of the Greek philosopher Socrates (ca. 470 to 399 BC). He was a fearlessly honest, moralistic voice that drew both admiration and exasperation from many of his fellow Athenian citizens. With the ethos that “the unexamined life is not worth living”, Socrates was outspoken and made many powerful enemies. He earned the nickname “The Gadfly”, insinuating that he used his reflective criticism to sting the great horse of state [Athens] into action. In 399 BC, their patience exhausted, in a politically motivated act his fellow citizens brought Socrates to trial. Charged with religious heresy and corrupting the morals of local youths, Socrates was condemned to death. The tradition is that he poisoned himself with Hemlock (Conium maculatum), which contains the active alkaloid coniine. 

Socrates’ most famous pupil Plato recounted the death of his famous teacher through a conversational dialogue in his work Phaedo:  

“… his legs began to fail, and when he lay on his back, according to all directions, and the man who gave him the poison now and then looked at this feet and legs; and after a while, he pressed his foot hard and asked him if he could feel; and he said, No; and then his leg, and so upwards and upwards, and showed us that he was cold and stiff. And he felt them himself and said: when the poison reaches the heart, that will be the end, He was beginning to grow cold about the groin, when he uncovered his face, for he had covered himself up and said – they were his last words – he said: Crito, I owe a cock to Asclepius; will you remember to pay the debt? The debt shall be paid said Crito; is there anything else? There was no answer to this question; bin in a minute or two a movement was heard, and the attendants uncovered him; his eyes were set, and Crito close this eyes and mouth. 

Such was the end, … of our friend; concerning whom I may truly say, that of all the men of his time whom I have known, he was the wisest and justness and best.”

Plato, Phaedo, 117-118

The effects of the Hemlock as described by Plato have been questioned by some, although any inaccuracy is likely to be in the re-telling, rather than in the event itself (Campbell, 2021). As states, the use of Hemlock in Athenian state executions was well established.

Henbane

Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger), also known as Black Henbane and Stinking Nightshade, belongs to the botanical tribe Hyoscyameae of the nightshade family Solanaceae (cf. Belladonna). The plant contains hyoscyamine, scopolamine, and other tropane alkaloids in its foliage and seeds which are toxic. Native to temperate Europe and Siberia, although naturalised in Great Britain and Ireland, the name Henbane dates from AD 1265 where “bane” meant a “thing that causes death”.

Historically, Henbane was used in combination with other plants, such as Mandrake, Belladonna (Deadly Nightshade), and Datura, as an anaesthetic potion. Like many of the other solanaceous plants in the Nightshade family it induces sleep and can relieve pain when applied directly to a part of the body. Known also for its psychoactive properties, such as visual hallucinations and a sensation of flight, Henbane was a common ingredient in “magical potions”.

Greco-Romans  To the ancient Greeks the plant was Herba Apollinaris, one of the visionary herbs used by the famous Oracle at Delphi. There is, however, little evidence for Henbane’s cultivation or its medicinal and hallucinatory uses until the Roman period from when surviving medical texts provide details of how Henbane was used. Pliny the Elder described four types of Henbane in his book Naturalis Historia (“The Natural History”), including one with black seeds and purple flowers that could cause insanity and giddiness.  Wine infused with four or more leaves could bring down a fever, but Pliny warned of the dangers of the drug and mentioned remedies for those who had imbibed the wine, declaring henbane both a poison and a remedy:

“Oil of Henbane is of an emollient nature [4], but it is bad for the nerves; taken in drink [wine], it disturbs the brain.” (Pliny, Naturalis Historia, Book XXIII, Chapter 49)

The Greco-Roman physician Dioscorides also wrote about the properties of Henbane in the 1st-century AD. In his famous herbal, De Materia Medica, Dioscorides referred to three types of Henbane: white, yellow and black. The latter is probably Black Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger, which is related to Deadly Nightshade and Mandrake) while the yellow and white types are probably another species, Hyoscyamus albus. Dioscorides wrote that both yellow and Black Henbane can cause delirium and sleep, but he considered that Black Henbane was best avoided due to its stronger effects. He also described the use of Henbane seeds, taken in a juice for pain relief or for treatment of mucus and disorders of the womb. The leaves could be applied to the body to soothe pain (its emollient effect) or were taken in liquid to lower a fever. If boiled, the leaves were said to cause disturbances to the senses.

Several medicinal uses were ascribed to the white type which grew near the coast, including the juice from its crushed leaves and stems being a remedy for coughs. Fumes from the burned plant were used for joint ailments, inflamed tendons and gout. Toothache could be treated by chewing on Henbane root with vinegar, and the root was applied in an ointment to alleviate womb pain. Similarly, henbane and anise seeds with asses’ milk were prescribed in a honey-wine concoction that prevented shortness of breath and flatulence. The seed oil was used to soften the skin or poured into the ear to treat earache.

Going beserk  Henbane seeds have been found in a Norse grave near Fyrkat, Denmark in 1977. This discovery and other archaeological finds confirm that Black Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) was known to the “Vikings”. Considering the symptoms caused by intoxication of this plant it has been theorised that Henbane was used by berserkers to induce an enraged state later employed in battle.

As with many of the poisons listed their medicinal effects were, and still are, highly valued as a narcotic and anodyne (pain reliever). The compounds found in Henbane, hyoscyamine and scopolamine, are used in prescription medicines today to treat nausea and vomiting resulting from motion sickness or following surgery, and in the treatment of muscle spasms. Depending on the dosage, the common effects of ingestion Henbane are hallucination, dilated pupils, restlessness, and flushed skin. Less commonly, with higher doses symptoms range from tachycardia (irregular heartbeat), convulsions, vomiting, hypertension, hyperpyrexia, and ataxia. Sometimes, intoxication can last for days and cause irreversible symptoms. Overdose occurs and causes death by respiratory paralysis, although the precise lethal dosage is not known.

Lead

Lead is a chemical element (atomic number 82) whose symbol Pb comes from the Latin word plumbum. Although a heavy metal denser than most common materials, Lead is soft and malleable, with a relatively low melting point. When freshly cut, it is a shiny grey (with a hint of blue) but tarnishes to a dull grey colour when exposed to air. Galena is a principal ore of Lead that often bears silver. Interest in silver helped initiate widespread extraction and use of Lead in ancient Rome where its ease of working, its low melting point enabling the easy fabrication of completely waterproof welded joints, and its resistance to corrosion made it ideal for making water pipes. Consequently, the Latin word plumbum is the origin of the English words “plumbing” and “plumber”.

Beautiful killer  The ancient Romans were also instrumental with introducing Lead into cosmetics, a practice that would continue for centuries. Since light skin was considered a symbol of femininity, the deliberate practice of whitening the skin became the fashion. Lead carbonate was used, especially by wealthier Roman women, to cover blemishes and enhance skin colour. Lead carbonate was also used throughout ancient Egypt and Greece as a white cosmetic, known as ceruse, which was essentially white Lead. The Egyptians used lead sulphide in kohl, for application as makeup typically around the eye.

Having fair, clear skin free from blemishes was highly sought after in the Middle Ages as it was considered a social indicator of woman in good health and fertility. In contrast to the tanned skin of labourers working outdoors in direct sunlight, a fair complexion was also a sign of high status and wealth. Individuals in loftier positions within society had the luxury of staying indoors and did not engage in employment. Thus, Elizabeth I of England was only ever depicted with fair white skin to emphasise her nobility and high status. The ideal beauty standards during the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance therefore saw women aiming for a white complexion contrasted by bright red cheeks and lips that was as “bright as moonlight” and “fair as snow”. Lead, in the form of Venetian ceruse or Venetian White, was extensively used in cosmetics during the Elizabethan period and beyond to enhance beauty by creating a smooth, natural complexion.

Whitened faces were regarded as a sign of modesty by western European aristocracy such that the custom later expanded to white wigs and eyeliners. As the practice petered out around the time of the French Revolution in the late 18th-century, so a similar fashion appeared in Japan with the emergence of the geishas, traditional Japanese female entertainers [5]. Since white faces “came to represent their feminine virtue as Japanese women” the practice continued long into the 20th-century. 

Downside  Whether inhaled, swallowed or absorbed through the skin, Lead is a highly poisonous neurotoxin that accumulates in soft tissues and bones. It damages the nervous system and interferes with the function of biological enzymes leading to neurological disorders ranging from behavioural problems to brain damage. Lead also affects general health, cardiovascular and renal systems, affecting almost every organ and system in the human body. Lead can cause severe damage to the brain and kidneys and, ultimately, death. The symptoms of lead poisoning became widely recognized in Europe in the late 19th-century even though the metal’s toxicity was first documented by ancient Greek and Roman writers.

Mandrake

Often known as Mandrake, although this name is also used for other plants, Mandragora officinarum is another plant in the nightshade family Solanaceae (cf. above). It is a perennial herbaceous plant with ovate leaves arranged in a rosette, a thick upright root, often branched, and bell-shaped flowers followed by yellow or orange berries.

Mandrake plants contain hallucinogenic tropane alkaloids (atropine, scopolamine, and hyoscyamine) which cause delirium and hallucinations. The shape of their roots often resembles human figures which led to Mandrake’s association with a variety of religious and spiritual practices throughout history including in “magic rituals”. Superstitious mediæval folk believed that when the vaguely human-shaped root was pulled out, the plant gave a piercing shriek that would drive anyone that heard it to madness or even death.

The alkaloids make the plant, especially the root and leaves, poisonous. Aside from its hypnotic and hallucinogenic effects, the plant’s toxins can block neurotransmitters in the nervous system causing asphyxiation. Ingesting Mandrake root is likely to have other adverse effects such as vomiting and diarrhoea. While the alkaloid concentration may vary between plant samples, accidental poisoning is likely to occur. In sufficient quantities, the hallucinogenic and narcotic properties of the roots induce a state of unconsciousness and was thus used as an anaesthetic for surgery in ancient times. The Romans, for example, used an extract of Mandrake root as a painkiller during surgery. Likewise, in the past the juice from the finely grated root was applied externally to relieve rheumatic pains, and internally to treat melancholy, convulsions, and mania. Amulets made of Mandrake were believed to bring good fortune and cure sterility.

Mercury

Mercury is a metallic element (atomic number 80) whose name is derived from the ancient Roman god Mercurius, the herald and ambassador of his father, Jupiter. Its chemical symbol, however, is Hg from the Greek hydrargyros meaning “liquid silver” [6]. Being the only metallic element that is known to be liquid at standard temperature and pressure, silver-white mercury is commonly known as “quicksilver”. It occurs in deposits throughout the world mostly as Cinnabar (mercuric sulphide) from which it was prepared in ancient times.

Exposure to mercury and mercury-containing organic compounds is toxic to the nervous system, immune system and kidneys of humans and other animals. Toxic effects include damage to the brain, kidneys and lungs. Symptoms typically include sensory impairment (vision, hearing, speech), disturbed sensation and a lack of coordination. The type and degree of symptoms exhibited depend upon the individual toxin, the dose, and the method and duration of exposure.

Mercury poisoning can also result from exposure to water-soluble forms of Mercury such as mercuric chloride or methylmercury. This can be either directly or through mechanisms of biomagnification (the increase in concentration of a substance, for example a pesticide, in the tissues of organisms at successively higher levels in a food chain). Today, consumption of fish containing Mercury is by far the most significant source of ingestion-related exposure in humans. But we can also be exposed to it from breathing contaminated air, from eating foods that have acquired mercury residues during processing, from exposure to Mercury vapour in Mercury amalgam dental restorations, and from improper use or disposal of Mercury and Mercury-containing objects.

Mithridatum

King Mithridates VI ruled Pontus, an ancient Hellenistic state in northern Anatolia (Türkiye), from 120 BC until his death in 63 BC. Given that his mother had poisoned his father, Mithridates lived in constant fear of being assassinated, especially with poison. A highly educated and sophisticated king who spoke 22 languages, Mithridates became obsessed with finding a universal antidote through the study of poisons and their antidotes. The king actively employed the best doctors and natural scientists of his day in what we might recognise as an imperial toxicology department. Administering venoms and toxins on prisoners and convicts facing execution, Mithridates steadily built a body of proven knowledge attested by several ancient sources.

Mithridates’ paranoia led him to attempt building a tolerance to as many poisons as possible. Said to take small, incremental doses of poison daily, along with various experimental antidotes, the king was rumoured to have a resistance to several poisons and toxins. Eventually, he discovered a formula that combined small portions of dozens of the best-known herbal remedies of the time, which he named Mithridatum. This secret elixir remained a mystery until Roman general Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (known in English as Pompey the Great) invaded Pontus, defeated Mithridates and took the King’s antidote prescriptions and notes of medicinal plants back to Rome where they were translated in Latin. In a cruel irony, Mithridates took poison in an attempt to commit suicide during Pompey's invasion, but it failed to kill him and one of his soldiers had to finish the deed.

Opium

Opium is mentioned in the most important medical texts of the ancient and mediæval world, including the Egyptian Ebers Papyrus and the writings of Dioscorides, the Roman physician, writer and philosopher Galen, and Abū 'Alī al-Husayn ibn Sina (“Avicenna”), the pre-eminent philosopher and physician of the Islamic Golden Age.

Also known as “poppy tears”, or Lachryma papaveris), Opium is the dried latex, a milky fluid obtained from the seed capsules of the opium poppy Papaver somniferum. Approximately 12 percent of Opium is made up of the analgesic alkaloid morphine, which is processed chemically to produce heroin and other synthetic opioids for medicinal use and for the illegal drug trade. The production methods have not significantly changed since ancient times. The traditional, labour-intensive method of obtaining the latex is to scratch, or “score”, the immature seed pods (fruits) by hand. By doing so the latex leaks out and dries to a sticky yellowish residue that is later scraped off and dehydrated.

The earliest archaeological evidence of Opium use by humans comes from the Mediterranean region. The oldest known seeds date to more than 5000 BC in the Neolithic age, but we can only speculate for what purposes the seeds were harvested. Perhaps its anaesthetic qualities had been discovered or perhaps the seeds were simply food. At least 17 finds of Papaver somniferum from Neolithic settlements have been reported throughout Switzerland, Germany, and Spain. The latter included the deposition of large numbers of poppy seed capsules at the Cueva de los Murciélagos, or “Bat Cave”, burial site in Spain, which has been carbon-14 dated to 4200 BC.

The first known cultivation of Opium poppies was in Mesopotamia, approximately 3400 BC, by Sumerians, who called the plant hul gil, the “joy plant”. Tablets found at Nippur, a Sumerian spiritual centre south of Baghdad, described the collection of poppy juice in the morning and its use in production of Opium. Cultivation continued in the Middle East by the Assyrians and later by the Babylonians and the Egyptians, the latter cultivating opium thebaicum in famous poppy fields circa 1300 BC. Opium’s invention was credited to the Egyptian god Thoth, and it was said to have been given by Isis to Ra as treatment for a headache. In ancient Egypt it seems Opium use was generally restricted to priests, magicians, and warriors.

Egyptian Opium was traded from by the Phoenicians and Minoans to destinations around the Mediterranean Sea including Greece, Carthage, and Europe. By 1100 BC, Opium was cultivated on the island of Cyprus where surgical-quality knives used to score the poppy pods have been recovered by archaeologists. The evidence indicates the ancient Greeks consumed Opium in several ways, including inhalation of its vapours, as suppositories, medical poultices, and as a combination with Hemlock for inducing quick and painless death. Medicinally, sponges soaked in Opium, known as Spongia somnifera, were used during surgery. The significance of Opium to the Greeks is revealed by the number of gods depicted wreathed in poppies or holding them. Symbolizing nocturnal oblivion, poppies frequently adorned statues of Hypnos (Sleep), Nyx (Night), and Thanatos (Death) as well as Apollo, Asclepius, Pluto, Demeter, Aphrodite, Kybele and Isis.

As the power of the Roman Empire declined, the lands to the south and east of the Mediterranean Sea were incorporated into the Islamic Empires. Muslim scholars edited and improved Dioscorides' five-volume De Materia Medica, the precursor of pharmacopoeias which remained in use from the 1st- to 16th-centuries. The Arabic text described Opium and the wide range of its uses common in the ancient world. In The Canon of Medicine, the aforementioned Persian physician Abū 'Alī al-Husayn ibn Sina (“Avicenna”) described Opium as the most powerful sleep inducer in comparison to Mandrake and other highly effective herbs. The text lists the medicinal effects of Opium, such as analgesia, hypnosis, a cough suppressant, gastrointestinal effects, cognitive effects, respiratory depression, neuromuscular disturbances, and sexual dysfunction. Significantly, it also refers to Opium's potential as a poison. Avicenna describes several methods of delivery and recommendations for doses of the drug. This classic text was translated into Latin in 1175 and later into many other languages. The Canon of Medicine remained the authoritative medical text until the 19th-century.

Snake Venom 

Probably the most famous alleged use of snake venom is Queen Cleopatra's death in August 30 BC. Unquestionably a powerful woman, the last ruler of her Ptolemaic dynasty, and the last independent ruler of Egypt, Cleopatra was a truly iconic but fated figure of ancient history. As an ally and a lover of both Gaius Julius Caesar and subsequently his lieutenant Marcus Antonius, Cleopatra was a significant player in the Roman civil wars that followed the assassination of Caesar. The combined forces of Antonius and Egypt were finally defeated by Gaius Octavius at the great sea battle off the coast of Actium in 31 BC. The following year Octavius, soon to be the first Roman emperor Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus, invaded Egypt forcing Cleopatra’s lover, Marcus Antonius, to commit suicide.

With Antonius dead, the biographer Plutarch records that Octavius met with Cleopatra and coldly told her of his intention to transport the Queen and her three children to Rome in triumph. No queen of her standing could allow herself to be taken so, in an act of personal resistance, Cleopatra had a basket of figs delivered to her rooms:

“It is said that the Asp was brought with those figs and leaves and lay hidden beneath them, for thus Cleopatra had given orders, that the reptile might fasten itself upon her body without her being aware of it. But when she took away some of the figs and saw it, she said: ‘There it is, you see’, and baring her arm she held it out for the bite.”

Plutarch, Life of Anthony, 86.1

Robbed of his triumph, Octavius was said to be angered by the queen’s death. As the Roman biographer Suetonius noted:

“Cleopatra he anxiously wished to save for his triumph; and when she was supposed to have been bit to death by an asp, he sent for the Psylli to endeavour to suck out the poison. He allowed them to be buried together in the same grave, and ordered a mausoleum, begun by themselves, to be completed.”

Suetonius, Life of Augustus, 17

Historians today are unsure whether Cleopatra committed suicide or was murdered. Moreover, there is evidence that a toxic salve might have been the cause of her death rather than a snakebite. The Queen would have been familiar with the Asp or Egyptian Cobra, whose venom contains neurotoxins and cytotoxins and would have known the bite of the snake is extremely painful, but not always lethal. The bite site becomes painful, blistered, and swollen, while the venom leads to paralysis, headache, nausea, convulsions and death, if it occurs, would be from respiratory failure. This happens only in the later stages once the venom’s neurotoxins have affected the heart and lungs so, if Cleopatra was bitten by an Asp, she would have known this would not have been a quick and painless death.

Scythians  On the very fringes of the classical world on the northern shores of the Black sea where the most distant Greek settlers encountered a fierce, trans-nomadic people known as the Scythians. Expert horse-riders and skilled archers famed for using a short, composite bow, archaeology has revealed Scythian arrowheads were coated in deadly biological toxins:

“They say that they make the Scythian poison with which they smear arrows, out of the snake. Apparently, the Scythians watch for those [snakes] that have just born young, and taking them, let them rot for some days. When they think that they are completely decomposed, they pour a man’s blood into a small vessel, and dig it into a dunghill, and cover it up. When this has also decomposed, they mix the part which stands on the blood, which is watery, with the juice of the snake, and so make a deadly poison.”

Pseudo Aristotle, de Mirabilibus Auscultationibus: 141 (845a)

Unfortunately, this extract written by one of Aristotle’s disciples is our only insight into Scythian practices. That said, the nomadic Scythians ranged across Asiatic Russia, Europe, and the Caucasus. Within this vast territory they would have had access to a range of toxic snake venom, including that from the Steppe Viper, Caucasus Viper, European Adder, and the long-nose, Sand Viper. If used in the concoction described by Pseudo Aristotle, the smallest of wounds had the potential to incapacitate or prove fatal. Whether the Scythians used this mixture in hunting and warfare is not mentioned, but both are equally likely.

Strychnine

Strychnine is a highly toxic, colourless, bitter, crystalline alkaloid used as a pesticide, particularly for killing small vertebrates such as birds and rodents. A lethal dose when inhaled, swallowed, or absorbed through the eyes or mouth, causes poisoning resulting in muscular convulsions and eventually death through asphyxia. No longer used medicinally, it was used historically in small doses to strengthen muscle contractions, such as a heart and bowel stimulant and performance-enhancing drug. The most common source is from the seeds of the Strychnos nux-vomica tree, a bitter-tasting tree native to the tropical forests on the Malabar Coast in Southern India, in Sri Lanka and Indonesia. The inhabitants of these countries had historical knowledge of the species and Saint-Ignatius’ bean (Strychnos ignatii). Indeed, the toxic and medicinal effects were well known in ancient India where it was used in many traditional medicines. Strychnine eventually made its way to the West in the 17th-century where it was used to poison rodents and small predators. Its chemical compound, however, was not identified and characterised until the 19th-century.

Strychnos nux-vomica, which typically grows to a height of about 12 metres (39 ft), has a crooked, short, thick trunk with wood that is close grained and very durable. The fruit, about the size of a large apple, has an orange colour and a hard rind covered with a soft wool-like substance. Each fruit contains five seeds that look like flattened disks and are very hard which, when ripe, are the chief commercial source of Strychnine which. In contrast, Strychnos ignatii is a woody climbing shrub of the Philippines. The fruit of the plant, known as Saint Ignatius’ bean, contains as many as 25 seeds embedded in the pulp which contain more Strychnine than other commercial alkaloids. It was from these beans that Strychnine was first discovered by French chemists Joseph Bienaimé Caventou and Pierre-Joseph Pelletier in 1818.

Within as little as five minutes after injection or inhalation, the first symptoms to appear are muscle spasms. The convulsions take somewhat longer to manifest after ingestion, typically about 15 minutes. Very high doses can lead to cardiac arrest, respiratory failure, multiple organ failure, or brain damage within approximately 15 to 30 minutes. If a lower dose is ingested, other symptoms begin to develop, including seizures, cramping, stiffness, hypervigilance, and agitation. Seizures caused by Strychnine poisoning can start as early as 15 minutes after exposure and last between 12 to 24 hours. During seizures, mydriasis (abnormal dilation), exophthalmos (protrusion of the eyes), and nystagmus (involuntary eye movements) may occur. As strychnine poisoning progresses, tachycardia (rapid heartbeat), hypertension (high blood pressure), tachypnoea (rapid breathing), cyanosis (blue discolouration), diaphoresis (sweating), water-electrolyte imbalance, leukocytosis (high number of white blood cells), trismus (lockjaw), risus sardonicus (spasm of the facial muscles otherwise known as a “rictus grin”), and opisthotonus (dramatic spasm of the back muscles, causing arching of the back and neck) can occur. In rare cases, the affected person may experience nausea or vomiting.

Cyanide - a modern poison

Cyanides are produced by certain bacteria, fungi, and algae, and a number of plants produce organic compounds, known as antifeedants, to repel herbivores through distaste or toxicity. Examples include cassava roots (also called manioc), an important potato-like food grown in tropical countries and the base from which tapioca is made, and the Madagascar bamboo Cathariostachys madagascariensis which produces Cyanide as a deterrent to grazing. In response, the golden bamboo lemur, which eats the bamboo, has developed a high tolerance to cyanide. More widely, cyanides are found in substantial amounts in certain seeds and fruit stones, for example those of bitter almonds, apricots, apples, and peaches.

In 1782, while experimenting with the pigment Prussian Blue, the Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele discovered Hydrogen Cyanide. Prussian Blue pigment had been known since 1704, but the structure of the chemical was unknown. The chemical Scheele discovered was known as Blausäure, or “Blue Acid” or, in English, Prussic Acid.

A chemical compound that can take the form of gas or crystalline powder, Cyanide is one of the most potent and fast-acting poisons in existence. Hydrogen Cyanide was used as a chemical weapon in World War I and again in the Second World War when it was used in the form of Zyklon B in Nazi death camps. Nazi war leader Hermann Göring used Cyanide to kill himself the night before he was supposed to be hanged during the Nuremberg trials. Shortly before the fall of Berlin and its capture by Soviet Red Army, Adolf Hitler and his wife, Eva Braun both committed suicide by biting down on Cyanide capsules. To hasten his demise, Hitler also shot himself in the right temple.

Post-World War 2, the use of Cyanide pills became synonymous with the Cold War era of spying, especially in movies. While there is little truth to Hollywood’s “Cyanide tooth” both the CIA and KGB issued “L-pills” to their agents in the expectation that they would commit suicide rather than suffer torture or reveal state secrets if caught. The L-pill, where L meant “lethal”, had been developed during World War II by the British Special Operations Executive (SOE) and the American Office of Strategic Studies (OSS) for agents operating behind enemy lines. The original oval capsule, approximately the size of a pea, was a thin-walled glass ampoule covered in brown rubber to protect against accidental breakage. Filled with a concentrated solution of potassium Cyanide, were the agent to bite down on the capsule, the fast-acting poison would be released from the crushed ampoule. The CIA reputedly hid L-pills in a number of items, including the caps of pens and the frames of spectacles.

In the later 20th-century hydrogen cyanide, as well as mustard gas and unidentified nerve agents, may have been used in March 1988 by Saddam Hussein’s regime against Kurdish civilians living in Halabja, northern Iraq. The subsequent investigation revealed victims were displaying signs of Cyanide poisoning, the early symptoms of which include headache, dizziness, fast heart rate, shortness of breath, and vomiting. This phase may then be followed by seizures, slow heart rate, low blood pressure, loss of consciousness, and cardiac arrest. While it depends on the amount and method of exposure, Cyanide poisoning is one of the quickest ways to kill with the onset of symptoms usually occurring within a few minutes of exposure. Cyanide attacks the body’s cells, specifically the mitochondria which are responsible for cellular respiration and producing energy, known as adenosine triphosphate (ATP), from oxygen. The mitochondria need a specific enzyme called cytochrome oxidase to make this possible, but the Cyanide ion binds to this enzyme and blocks it from doing its life-giving job. In other words, the most likely cause of death will be respiratory or heart failure.

And finally…

Poisons have played their part in many civilizations. Used in hunting, in warfare, for murder, and in medicine, the classical poisons have had many and varied applications. Although the historical sources often lack scientific detail, it is evident that ancient societies worked with poisons and toxins over many millennia. While it would be easy to focus only on the negative effects, we should be mindful of the positive applications resulting from their development. The discovery and study of these poisons in the past led to their use in antidotes, medicines, and even for humane, legal euthanasia. Bon appétit!

References:

Blum, D., (2013), “The Imperfect Myth of the Female Poisoner”, Wired.com, available online (accessed 12th January 2024).

Campbell, C.J., (2021), “Poison in Ancient History: 5 Illustrative Examples of its Toxic Use”, The Collector, available online (accessed 4th June 2025).

Helmenstine, A.M., (2021), “6 Poisons That Have Been Used for Murder”, ThoughtCo, available online (accessed 12th January 2024).

Michael, C., (2018), “Devil’s Eye: A Collection of Henbane Lore”, www.thepoisonersapothecary.com, available online (accessed 21st May 2025).

Neal, M., (2020), “Nature's Toxic Gifts: The Deadly Story of Poison”, Popular Mechanics, available online (accessed July 30th, 2023).

Papadaki, P.G. and Kritikos, S.P., (1967), “The history of the poppy and of opium and their expansion in antiquity in the eastern Mediterranean area”, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) Bulletin on Narcotics Issue 4 – 002.

Endnotes:

1. In Archaic Greece, an amphictyony (Ancient Greek: ἀμφικτυονία, a “league of neighbours”), or Amphictyonic League, was an ancient religious association of tribes formed before the rise of the Greek polis or city-state.

2. The Oracle at Delphi, also known as the Pythia, was the high priestess of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, located on the slopes of Mount Parnassus above the Corinthian Gulf. The Pythia was one of the most powerful women in the classical world, widely credited for her prophecies uttered under divine possession by Apollo.

3. More commonly known as Monkshood, Aconite, Venus' Chariot or Wolfsbane, this an herbaceous perennial flowering plant, native and endemic to western and central Europe, is highly toxic.

4. Emollient: softening or soothing especially to the skin.

5. Geisha (芸者) are female Japanese performing artists and entertainers trained in traditional Japanese performing arts styles, such as dance, music and singing, as well as being proficient conversationalists and hosts. Their distinct appearance is characterised by long, trailing kimono, traditional hairstyles and oshiroi make-up. Geisha entertain at parties known as ozashiki, often for the entertainment of wealthy clientele, as well as performing on stage and at festivals. The first female geisha appeared in 1751. Before that time male performers entertained guests.

6. From Greek ὕδωρ (húdōr, “water”) and‎ ἄργῠρος (árgŭros, “silver”).